Introduction
The geographical discoveries that beginning in the 15th century have started a process in which the world trade centers are shifted from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. However, the Mediterranean trade has maintained its importance and it became a big opportunity for countries which delayed such as England and France, in the race to dominance over new trade centers of the Atlantic. East Mediterranean or in other words “Levant” has kept a crucial place in the trade of the Mediterranean and in that period (16th century) a country which wants to trade in that region had to establish diplomatic relation with the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, the British Empire has attempted so as to establish diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, this trade request became the beginning of diplomatic relations between Ottoman Empire and British Empire.
First negotiations have started in 1578. The negotiations with the Ottoman authorities has been conducted by a merchant- William Harborne on behalf of the Queen. Aftermath, definitive arrangement was signed by the merchant. Besides, a company was established under the name of “The Levant Company” as a result of that agreement and also that company’s delegate has become envoy of the British Empire in the İstanbul. This means, commercial concerns have initiated and shaped to diplomatic relations between these two countries. Due to all these developments, The Levant Company has a great importance in the subject of this study. In addition to this, in this study, the questions of what was the force majeure for British in order to trade in Levant, how did they begin the diplomatic relations and how they were carried out the diplomatic relation, has been researched. Essential purpose of the study, by examining those questions, is to reveal basic properties and dynamics of Ottoman-British diplomatic relations in 16th century.
- The Obligation of the British to Participate in the Levant Trade
The British Empire was planning to start to trade in the Levant (East Mediterranean) under necessity of many obligations. Firstly, they had late to colonization of the lands where has been discovered newly. Because, Atlantic trade had been kept by the Spanish who coming there earlier than British. On the other hand, Portuguese was keeping the route which reaching to India from South Africa. This situation was obliged to other countries for searching another way reaching India. British were needing to compensate the gap. Under these circumstances, British has searched a new way to the India from the Northeast Europe. They arrived from northern Scandinavia to the White Sea and then through Arkhangelsk to Moscow. But, this way did not provide any other benefit than the establishing of the Moscow Company. Because, establishing commercial relations with India through the Moscow, the Caucasia and the Hermit was an expensive way. Moreover, thef Ottoman Empire’s movements around Azerbaijan has disappointed those plans. Besides, in the city of Antwerp where the Dutch made the warehouse of the Indian goods, the trade of the British was exposed to the barriers of the Danish. For these reasons, to trade in Levant was so important for the British and this issue was requiring that contacting with the Ottoman Empire.
On the other hand, there were some factors which reducing the attractiveness of trade in Levant for British merchants. Spanish, Genoese and Venetians were attempting to block British trade in the Mediterranean. However, by force of circumstances which is cited above, the British who want to trade in Levant directly, had started to follow Ottoman-France relations. The capitulations which has been given to France by the Ottoman Empire, has affected to the British in order to trade in Ottoman lands. The British merchants were able to obtain the goods which trading in Levant, by way of Italian merchants. To direct trade in Levant for the British merchants was possible only under the French flag. However, starting to collapse power of the Venice in the Mediterranean in second half of the 16th century, was an encouraging factor for British in order to trade in the Levant.
The British who comprehending that the Ottoman Empire is a permanent power in the Mediterranean, benefited from French-Spanish conflicts. Because, the French had come under the influence of the Spanish and there was a distrusting in Ottoman authorities against France because of this situation. The British Empire has utilized that opportunity and started an enterprise to obtain commercial interest.
- Beginning of the Diplomatic Relations Between the Ottomans and the British
A report which has been created in England in1578, states that some European nations such as the Venetians and the French has embassy in Ottoman capital. The report explains trading in Ottoman lands as important necessity for the British Empire. Hence, according to the report, to establishing diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire is important for the British Empire. The report advises that to send an envoy to Ottomans on behalf of the queen and for this it proposes name of William Harborne. In that time, the conjuncture was proper to approaching to Ottomans.
The British queen Elizabeth was excommunicated by the Papacy in 1570. Traditionally, the Ottoman Empire were supporting the Protestants against the Catholics. To illustrate, they had supported the Dutch and Germans before. The Protestant states were natural ally for the Ottoman Empire against the Hapsburgs who joining the invite of the Crusade. The Papacy had prohibited that sell of the strategic goods such as gunpowder, bronze, weapon which using at the war technology, to the Ottomans. In this case, the rapprochement with the British was a good opportunity for the Ottomans.
2.1. The First Negotiations
Anthony Jenkinson is the British trader who received commercial privilege for the first time from the Ottomans. However, he found the trade that he conducted at the Moscow Company, was more profitable and he did not use that privilege because in his opinion, the privileges which has been given by the Russian Tsar was more confidential. Aftermath the process which cited above, The British has started to venture for trading in Ottoman lands. Edward Osborne and Richard Staper has taken initiative for this issue. These two merchants have sent Joseph Clement and John Wright who being their representatives, just about taking safe conduct and researching trade conditions in Ottoman lands. These men returned by getting what they wanted. Later, Edward Osborne and Richard Staper has sent William Harborne who being their agent, to contact with the Sultan. The formal beginning of the British-the Ottoman relations dates from the correspondence between Elizabeth I and Murad III in 1579. Before William Harborne arrive to the Ottoman capital city, the British Queen Elizabeth Ⅰ who supporting them, has sent a letter which mentioning of the Harborne’s identity and intention to the Sultan.
Orhan Burian states that Harborne’s travel was made by land way, by attributing to Richard Hakluyt’s chronicle which cannot using in this study because of fail to reach. During the travel, William Harborne has worked for establishing the friendship connections where in his passing places. Having participated in the delegation of Ahmet Çavuş, who served as ambassador in Poland, Harborne reached Istanbul in 1578. The French who do not want to lose their superiority, worked to fail Harborne’s efforts via envoy of the France in Istanbul. But, politic conditions of the time made ease Harborne’s work. The Ottomans was struggling against the Holy Liga so they approached with the British who leaving from the Catholic church. On the other side, an opportunity of reaching the valuable mines such as tin which using in producing artillery, was more important for the Ottoman Empire. Under these conditions, the Ottomans did not care the French protests by maintaining their claims of “we are friend with everybody who being friend with us”. As a result, William Harborne succeeded to sign an agreement including trade privileges as useful as that of the French, in 1578. Entering into force of the agreement was depended on condition of appointing a British envoy to Istanbul. William Harborne was appointed as envoy. Therefore, at conclusion of the first diplomatic negotiations, the first direct trade has started between the Ottoman Empire and the British Empire.
A map which showing the British Trade Routes. www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/sailingtimes.htm, (09.12.2017).
2.2. Establishing of the Levant Company and Trade Diplomacy
In the course of the 16th century, traders were coming together to form a corporation to share profit and loss because the overseas trade still had many risks. Another important goal of establishing a company was to prevent everyone from entering the business and create a monopoly. In accordance with the understanding of that time, Edward Osborne and Richard Staper, who initiated the first attempts to trade with the Ottomans, provided the support of the British authorities and the queen at the end, and gave the appointment of William Harborne, the representative of the Ottoman Empire, as ambassador.
Later, Edward Osborne and Richard Staper established a company under the name of “The Turkey Company (Chief Merchants all Turkish Company)” by coming together Thomas Smith, William Garret and a few more people who being their partner. They received a charter from the Queen that allowed the company to be sole authority in the trade with the Ottoman Empire, for 7 years. Thus, the company could regulate the trade in line with its interests. According the agreement which made with the Queen, if the company’s rights are to be raped by another British, his ship will be seized and shared between the government and the company. In return, the company will cover the costs of dragoman, consul and the envoy who appointed to Istanbul. In addition, the cost of any dispute that may arise with the Ottoman government will be covered by the company. Furthermore, the company committed that taking cannons to vessels before started to expedition and have check the vessels to relevant commandership. Besides, the company accepted to lose all privileges if they pirated in the open sea. The company, based on these principles, would be able to renew the charter for a further seven years, if both sides were willing. Carrying of the British state emblem and the flag with cross of the vessels which belong to the Levant Company, was decided. Edward Osborne was elected the first governor to the company which establishing under these circumstances.
The Turkey Company was converted to “The Levant Company” by uniting with the merchants who trading under the name of Venice Company, in 1592. Therefore, The Levant Company monopolised the British trade in the whole East Mediterranean. So, The Levant Company started to open new consulates in some trade centres of East Mediterranean. The consulates were opened respectively in Aleppo in 1580, in Alexandria in 1583, in Patras in 1589 and in Izmir in 1611. Consulate of Izmir began the most important centre over time.
The Levant Company has done considerably profitable trade from beginning. He made profits of up to 300% under the form given to him by his first form, the 1581 patent. There were 15 vessels and 790 sailors in command of the company, in 1595. The company was traveling to Alexandria, Cyprus, Chios, Zante and less frequently Venice and Algeria. The Levant Company had 20 boats only Italian waters, in 1599 and were added 16 new boat more to the fleet, in 1600.
The most important export product of the British was woollen fabrics. The products of the British woollen weaving industry began to flow into the Levant market. One of the most important effects of Levant’s trade to England is that the dyeing materials required for the production of these fabrics begin to be imported. In this way, the colourless fabrics of the British woollen industry began to be painted and thus the finishing of the production was completed in England. At the same time, it saved the British from the dependence on Flemish and Italians. In this way, the British woollen industry passed from the rough London fabric called the black leather to the painted fine wool. In a short time, it replaced Venice. In 1598, 750 balls of fine wool and 18,031 balls of rough wool were sent to the trade points of the Levant in London. British exports included strategic mines such as English tin, lead and bronze, as well as wool. These mines were using in artillery production as well as general using fields. In those years, Papacy had prohibited the export of these mines to the Ottoman Empire. Due to the Ottomans being in war with Iran, the need for these items has increased even more.
Thanks to the new diplomatic balances, Ottoman Empire could reach those mines. The British had been exporting these kinds of mines since they did not know the Papacy, in those years. They even sold the church bells, which had been removed during the reforms, to the Ottomans to be used for artillery production. Besides, those mines were constituting one of the most important export products of the Levant Company. Against the possibility that the trade would be hurt by French, Venetian and Pirate ships, the British state secretary Walsingham proposed and accepted the trade to be carried out in convoy with well-equipped vessels. This convoy system has played an important role in sustaining this trade steadily. The cheapness of the fabrics is another effect that gives continuity in the trade.
As mentioned above, defraying the costs of the ambassador who being in Istanbul by the Levant Company. In this case, it can be considered that this reality encumbers the responsibility to the ambassador for the commercial interests of the company. The first ambassador who appointing to Istanbul, was the representative of the company, at the same time. Because, to protect this trade was so important for the British Empire and for this reason, they cared mind diplomatic relations with the Empire. The process has continued with difficult struggles against the Barbarian pirates. Fernand Braudel expresses in his book The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World that “the piracy in the Mediterranean is as old as the history,”. This issue has affect the relations in subsequent process.
Conclusion
The diplomatic relations between the British Empire and the Ottoman Empire, started with commercial concerns. The Mediterranean was meaning of a departure point for the British who being late in spreading of territories which has been discovered newly. On the other hand, establishing the connection with the British Empire, was a new trump against the Catholic Alliance for the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans has always supported the Protestants who being in rivalry against Papacy and other Catholic countries. Therefore, they agreed with the British, easily, as a continuation of their traditional policy. The Levant Company has kept a crucial place in this diplomacy. The diplomatic missions of the British, has been conducted through this company.
Arms of the Levant Company. www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/armsoflevantcompany.htm, (09.12.2017).