📚 Mount Etna - Wikipedia

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Mount Etna, or simply Etna (Italian: Etna [ˈɛtna] or Mongibello [mondʒiˈbɛllo];
Sicilian: Muncibbeḍḍu [mʊntʃɪbˈbɛɖɖʊ], Èttina or 'a Muntagna; Latin: Aetna;
Ancient Greek: Αἴτνα or Αἴτνη), is an active stratovolcano on the east coast of
Sicily, Italy, in the Metropolitan City of Catania, between the cities of
Messina and Catania.
It is located above the convergent plate margin between the African Plate and
the Eurasian Plate.
It is one of the tallest active volcanoes in Europe, and the tallest peak in
Italy south of the Alps with a current height (September 2024) of 3,403 m
(11,165 ft), though this varies with summit eruptions.

For instance, in 2021 the southeastern crater reached a height of 3,357 m
(11,014 ft), but was then surpassed by the Voragine crater after the summer 2024
eruptions.
| Mount Etna | | |---|---| | Highest point | | | Elevation | 3,403 m (11,165
ft)(varies) | | Prominence | 3,403 m (11,165 ft) Ranked 54th | | Isolation |
998.79 km (620.62 mi) | | Listing | Ultra | | Coordinates | 37°45.3′N 14°59.7′E
/ 37.7550°N 14.9950°E | | Naming | | | Native name | Muncibbeḍḍu (Sicilian) | |
Geography | | Metropolitan City of Catania, Sicily, Italy | | | Geology | | |
Rock age | 350,000 - 500,000 years | | Mountain type | Stratovolcano | | Last
eruption | 23 April 2025 | | Criteria | Natural: viii | | Reference | 1427 | |
Inscription | 2013 (37th Session) | | Area | 19,237 ha | | Buffer zone | 26,220
ha | Etna covers an area of 1,190 km2 (459 sq mi) with a basal circumference of
140 km (87 miles).

This makes it by far the largest of the three active volcanoes in Italy, being
about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius.
Only Mount Teide on Tenerife in the Canary Islands surpasses it in the whole of
the European-North-African region west of the Black Sea.
In Greek mythology, the deadly monster Typhon was trapped under this mountain by
Zeus, the god of the sky and thunder and king of gods, and the forges of
Hephaestus were said also to be underneath it.

Mount Etna is one of the world's most active volcanoes and is in an almost
constant state of activity.
The fertile volcanic soils produced from this activity support extensive
agriculture, with vineyards and orchards spread across the lower slopes of the
mountain and the broad Plain of Catania to the south.
Due to its history of recent activity and nearby population, Mount Etna has been
designated a Decade Volcano by the United Nations.

In June 2013, it was added to the list of UNESC O World Heritage Sites.
Etymology and mythology edit One view is that the word Etna is from the Greek
αἴθω (aíthō), meaning "I burn", through an iotacist pronunciation.
Another view is that the name is derived from the Phoenician word attuna meaning
'furnace' or 'chimney'.

In Classical Greek, it is called Αἴτνη (Aítnē), a name given also to Catania and
the city originally known as Inessa.
In Latin it is called Aetna (ⓘ).
In Arabic, it is called Jabal al-Nār (جبل النار, 'the Mountain of Fire').
According to both Roman and Greek mythology, Vulcan/Hephaestus, the god of
blacksmithing, had his forge under Mount Etna.

The volcano is also known as Muncibbeḍḍu in Sicilian and Mongibello in Italian,
generally regarded as deriving from the Romance word monte/munti plus the Arabic
word jabal (جبل), both meaning 'mountain'.
According to another hypothesis, the term comes from the Latin Mulciber (qui
ignem mulcet, 'he who placates the fire'), one of the Latin names of the god
Vulcan.
Today, the name Mongibello is used for the area of Mount Etna containing the two
central craters, and the craters located southeast and northeast of the volcanic
cone.

The name Mongibel is found in Arthurian Romance, as the name of the otherworld
castle (or realm) of Morgan le Fay and her half-brother, King Arthur, localised
at Etna, according to traditions concerning them derived from the stories told
by the Breton conteurs who accompanied the Norman occupiers of Sicily.
What were originally Welsh conceptions concerning a dwarf king of a paradisal,
Celtic underworld became attached to the quasi-historic figure of Arthur as
"Ruler of the Antipodes" and were then transplanted into a Sicilian milieu, by
Bretons impressed by the already otherworldly associations of the great,
volcanic mountain of their new home.
Mediaevalist Roger Sherman Loomis quotes passages from the works of Gervase of
Tilbury and Caesarius of Heisterbach (dating from the late twelfth century)
featuring accounts of Arthur's returning of a lost horse which had strayed into
his subterranean kingdom beneath Etna.

Caesarius quotes as his authority for the story a certain canon Godescalcus of
Bonn, who considered it a matter of historical fact of the time of Emperor
Henry's conquest of Sicily c.
Caesarius employs in his account the Latin phrase in monte Gyber ('within Etna')
to describe the location of Arthur's kingdom.
The Fada de Gibel of the Castle of Gibaldar (Fairy of Etna) appears in Jaufre,
the only surviving Arthurian romance in the Occitan language, the composition of
which is dated to between 1180 and 1230.

However, in Jaufre, while it is clear from her name that the fairy queen in
question is Morgan le Fay, the rich underworld queendom of which she is the
mistress is accessed not through a fiery grotto on the slopes of Etna, but
through a 'fountain' (i.e., a spring) - a circumstance more in keeping with
Morgan's original watery, rather than fiery, associations, before her
incorporation into the folklore of Sicily.

Another Sicilian conception of the fairy realm or castle of Morgan le Fay is the
Fata Morgana, an optical phenomenon common in the Strait of Messina.
History of volcanic eruptions edit Eruptions of Etna follow multiple patterns.
Most occur at the summit, where there are five distinct craters: the Northeast
Crater, the Voragine, the Bocca Nuova, and two at the Southeast Crater Complex.

Other eruptions occur on the flanks, which have more than 300 vents ranging in
size from small holes in the ground to large craters hundreds of metres across.
Summit eruptions can be highly explosive and spectacular but rarely threaten the
inhabited areas around the volcano.
In contrast, flank eruptions can occur down to a few hundred metres altitude,
close to or even well within inhabited areas.

Numerous villages and small towns lie around or on cones of past flank
eruptions.
Since the year A D 1600, at least 60 flank eruptions and countless summit
eruptions have occurred; nearly half of these have happened since the start of
the 20th century.
Since 2000, Etna has had four flank eruptions - in 2001, 2002-2003, 2004-2005,
and 2008-2009.

Summit eruptions occurred in 2006, 2007-2008, January-April 2012, in
July-October 2012, December 2018, and again in February 2021.
Geological history edit Volcanic activity first took place at Etna about 500,000
years ago, with eruptions occurring beneath the sea off the ancient coastline of
Sicily.
About 300,000 years ago, volcanism began occurring to the southwest of the
summit (centre top of the volcano), then activity moved towards the present
centre 170,000 years ago.

Eruptions at this time built up the first major volcanic edifice, forming a
stratovolcano in alternating explosive and effusive eruptions.
The growth of the mountain was occasionally interrupted by major eruptions,
leading to the collapse of the summit to form calderas.
From about 35,000 to 15,000 years ago, Etna experienced some highly explosive
eruptions, generating large pyroclastic flows, which left extensive ignimbrite
deposits.

Ash from these eruptions has been found as far away as south of Rome's border,
800 km (497 mi) to the north.
Thousands of years ago, the eastern flank of the mountain experienced a
catastrophic collapse, generating an enormous landslide in an event similar to
that seen in the 1980 eruption of Mount St.
The landslide left a large depression in the side of the volcano, known as
'Valle del Bove' (Valley of the Ox).

Research published in 2006 suggested this occurred around 8,000 years ago, and
caused a huge tsunami, which left its mark in several places in the eastern
Mediterranean.
The steep walls of the valley have suffered subsequent collapses on numerous
occasions.
The strata exposed in the valley walls provide an important and easily
accessible record of Etna's eruptive history.

The most recent collapse event at the summit of Etna is thought to have occurred
about 2,000 years ago, forming what is known as the Piano Caldera.
This caldera has been almost entirely filled by subsequent lava eruptions but is
still visible as a distinct break in the slope of the mountain near the base of
the present-day summit cone.
Mount Etna is moving towards the Mediterranean Sea at an average rate of 14 mm
(0.55 in) per year, the massif sliding on an unconsolidated layer above the
older sloping terrain.

Historical eruptions edit The first known record of eruption at Etna is that of
Diodorus Siculus.
In 396 BC E, an eruption of Etna reportedly thwarted the Carthaginians in their
attempt to advance on Syracuse during the Second Sicilian War.
A particularly violent explosive (Plinian) summit eruption occurred in 122 BC E,
and caused heavy tephra falls to the southeast, including the town of Catania,
where many roofs collapsed.

To help with reconstruction after the devastating effects of the eruption, the
Roman government exempted the population of Catania from paying taxes for ten
years.
An eruption of Etna in 44 BC E was followed by famine in China (43 BC E) the
Roman Republic and Egypt, with Plutarch (among others) suggesting a causal link;
however, an eruption of Mount Okmok early the following year is a more likely
cause.

The Roman poet Virgil gave what was probably a first-hand description of an
eruption in the Aeneid.
During the first 1500 years C E, many eruptions went unrecorded (or records have
been lost); among the more significant are: (1) an eruption in about 1030 C E
near Monte Ilice on the lower southeast flank, which produced a lava flow that
travelled about 10 km, reaching the sea north of Acireale; the villages of Santa
Tecla and Stazzo are built on the broad delta built by this lava flow into the
sea; (2) an eruption in about 1160 (or 1224), from a fissure at only 350-450 m
(1,148-1,476 ft) elevation on the south-southeast flank near the village of
Mascalucia, whose lava flow reached the sea just to the north of Catania, in the
area now occupied by the portion of the city named Ognina.

Rabban Bar Sauma, a Chinese traveller to the West, recorded the eruption of Etna
on 18 June 1287.
The 1669 eruption, Etna's most destructive since 122 BC E, started on 11 March
1669 and produced lava flows that destroyed at least 10 villages on its southern
flank before reaching the city walls of the town of Catania five weeks later, on
15 April.

The lava was largely diverted by these walls into the sea to the south of the
city, filling the harbour of Catania.
A small portion of lava eventually broke through a fragile section of the city
walls on the western side of Catania and destroyed a few buildings before
stopping in the rear of the Benedictine monastery, without reaching the centre
of the town.
Contrary to widespread reports of up to 15,000 (or even 20,000) human fatalities
caused by the lava, contemporaneous accounts written both in Italian and English
mention no deaths related to the 1669 eruption (but give very precise figures of
the number of buildings destroyed, the area of cultivated land lost, and the
economic damage).

Therefore, it is uncertain where the enormous number of fatalities can be
attributed.
One possibility is confusion between this eruption and an earthquake that
devastated southeast Sicily (including Catania) 24 years later in 1693.

A study on the damage and fatalities caused by eruptions of Etna in historical
times reveals that only 77 human deaths are attributable with certainty to
eruptions of Etna, most recently in 1987 when two tourists were killed by a
sudden explosion near the summit.
Since 1750, seven of Etna's eruptions have had durations of more than five
years, more than any other volcano except Vesuvius.
Modern-day eruptions (1923-present day) edit As "Europe's most active volcano",
eruptions occur frequently (with as many as 16 eruptions taking place in 2001).

However, several eruptions of note have occurred over the last century.
A major eruption took place in June 1923, lasting from 6 June until 29 June.
A large lava flow from an eruption in 1928 led to the destruction of a
population centre for the first time since the 1669 eruption.

The eruption started high on Etna's northeast flank on 2 November.
Then new eruptive fissures opened at decreasing elevations down the flank of the
volcano.
The third and most vigorous of these fissures opened late on 4 November at an
unusually low elevation, approximately 1,200 m (3,937 ft) above sea-level, in a
zone known as Ripe della Naca.

The village of Mascali, lying down-slope of the Ripe della Naca, was almost
completely destroyed in two days.
Only a church and a few surrounding buildings survived in the north part of the
village, called Sant'Antonino or "il quartiere".
During the last days of the eruption, the flow interrupted the Messina-Catania
railway line and destroyed the train station of Mascali.

The event was used by Benito Mussolini's fascist regime for propaganda purposes,
with the evacuation, aid, and rebuilding operations being presented as models of
fascist planning.
Mascali was rebuilt on a new site, and its church contains the Italian fascist
symbol of the torch, placed above the statue of Jesus Christ.
Other major 20th-century eruptions occurred in 1949, 1971, 1979, 1981, 1983 and
1991-1993.

In 1971, lava buried the Etna Observatory (built in the late 19th century),
destroyed the first generation of the Etna cable-car, and seriously threatened
several small villages on Etna's east flank.
In March 1981, the town of Randazzo on the northwestern flank of Etna narrowly
escaped destruction by unusually fast-moving lava flows.
That eruption was remarkably similar to one in 1928 that destroyed Mascali.

The 1991-1993 eruption saw the town of Zafferana threatened by a lava flow, but
successful diversion efforts saved the town with the loss of only one building a
few hundred metres from the town's margin.
Initially, such efforts consisted of the construction of earth barriers built
perpendicularly to the flow direction; it was hoped that the eruption would stop
before the artificial basins created behind the barriers would be completely
filled.
Instead, the eruption continued, and lava surmounted the barriers, heading
directly toward Zafferana.

Engineers then decided to use explosives near the source of the lava flow, to
disrupt a very efficient lava tube system through which the lava travelled for
up to 7 km (4 mi) without losing significant heat or fluidity.
The main explosion on 23 May 1992 destroyed the tube and forced the lava into a
new artificial channel, far from Zafferana, and it would have taken months to
re-establish a long lava tube.
Shortly after the blasting, the rate of lava emission dropped, and during the
remainder of the eruption (until 30 March 1993) the lava never advanced close to
the town again.

In July-August 2001, following six years (1995-2001) of unusually intense
activity at the four summit craters of Etna, the volcano produced its first
flank eruption since 1991-1993.
This eruption, which involved activity from seven distinct eruptive fissures
mostly on the south slope of the volcano, was well covered by the mass-media
because it occurred at the height of the tourist season and numerous reporters
and journalists were already in Italy to cover the G8 summit in Genoa.
It also occurred close to one of the tourist areas on the volcano, and thus was
easily accessible.

Part of the "Etna Sud" tourist area, including the arrival station of the Etna
cable car, were damaged by this eruption, which otherwise was a rather
modest-sized event by Etna standards.
In 2002-2003, a much larger eruption threw up a huge column of ash that could
easily be seen from space and fell as far away as Libya, 600 km (370 mi) south
across the Mediterranean Sea.
Seismic activity in this eruption caused the eastern flanks of the volcano to
slip by up to two metres, and many houses on the flanks of the volcano
experienced structural damage.

The eruption also completely destroyed the tourist station Piano Provenzana, on
the northeastern flank of the volcano, and part of the tourist station "Etna
Sud" around the Rifugio Sapienza on the south flank.
Footage from the eruptions was recorded by Lucasfilm and integrated into the
landscape of the planet Mustafar in the 2005 film Star Wars: Episode II I -
Revenge of the Sith.
The Rifugio Sapienza is near the site of a cable car station which had
previously been destroyed in the 1983 eruption; it has now been rebuilt.

Following a slow and non-destructive lava outflow on the upper southeastern
flank between September 2004 and March 2005, intense eruptions occurred at the
Southeast Crater in July-December 2006.
These were followed by four episodes of lava fountaining, again at the Southeast
Crater, on 29 March, 11 April, 29 April and 7 May 2007.
Ash emissions and Strombolian explosions started from a vent on the eastern side
of the Southeast Crater in mid-August 2007.

On 4 September 2007, a major episode of lava fountaining occurred from the new
vent on the east side of the Southeast Crater, also producing a plume of ash and
scoriae which fell over the east flank of the volcano.
A lava flow travelled about 4.5 km (2.8 mi) into the uninhabited Valle del Bove.
This eruption was visible far into the plains of Sicily, ending the following
morning between the hours of 5 am and 7 am local time.

Catania-Fontanarossa Airport shut down operations during the night for safety
precautions.[verification needed] An eruption on the morning of 13 May 2008,
immediately to the east of Etna's summit craters was accompanied by a swarm of
more than 200 earthquakes and significant ground deformation in the summit area.
The eruption continued at a slowly diminishing rate for 417 days, until 6 July
2009, making this the longest flank eruption of Etna since the 1991-1993
eruption that lasted 473 days.
Previous eruptions, in 2001, 2002-2003, and 2004-2005 had lasted three weeks,
three months, and six months, respectively.

Lava flows advanced 6.5 km during the first few days of this eruption but
thereafter stagnated at many minor distances from the vents; during the last
months of the eruption lava rarely advanced more than one kilometre downslope.
Through January 2011 to February 2012, the summit craters of Etna were the site
of intense activity.
Frequent eruptions and ash columns forced the authorities to shut down the
Catania airport on several occasions.

The July 2011 episode also endangered the Sapienza Refuge, the main tourist hub
on the volcano, but the lava flow was successfully diverted.
In 2014, a flank eruption started involving lava flows and strombolian
eruptions.
This was the first flank eruption since 2008-09.

On 3 December 2015, an eruption occurred which climaxed between 03:20 and 04:10
local time.
The Voragine crater exhibited a lava fountain that reached 1 km (3,300 ft) in
height, with an ash plume which reached 3 km (9,800 ft) in height.
The activity continued on the following days, with an ash plume that reached 7
km (23,000 ft) in height that forced Catania airport to shut down for a few
hours.

Volcanic gas emissions from this volcano are measured by a multi-component gas
analyzer system, which detects pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas,
improving prediction of volcanic activity.
An eruption on 16 March 2017 injured 10 people, including a BB C News television
crew, after magma exploded upon contact with snow.
An eruption on 24 December 2018, following a dyke intrusion at shallow depth,
spewed ash into the air, forcing the closure of airspace around Mount Etna.

Two days later, a magnitude 4.9 earthquake shook the town of Fleri and
surrounding towns and hamlets in the Province of Catania, damaging buildings and
injuring four people.
Beginning in February 2021, Mount Etna began a series of explosive eruptions,
which have had an impact on nearby villages and cities, with volcanic ash and
rock falling as far away as Catania.
As of 12 March 2021[update], the volcano has erupted 11 times in three weeks.

The eruptions have consistently sent ash clouds over 10 km (33,000 ft) into the
air, closing Sicilian airports.
There have been no reports of injuries.[needs update] In February 2022 there
were two eruptions.
On 11 February 2022, at 6 pm, there were lava fountains from the Southeast
Crater which had become a single Strombolian eruption by 7 pm.

Between 10 pm and 11 pm, it had reached a height of almost 1,000 m and lava
bombs were thrown at a considerable distance.
Ash was blown west by the wind and then turned southeast.
There was large lava flow in the western flank.
On 19 February at 10.15 am there was an explosive eruption, again from the
Southeast Crater, high lava fountains and lava flows, the longest of which went
down the north-eastern flank towards the Bove Valley.

On 29 May 2022 a sudden collapse of the Southeast Crater created a fracture on
its northern flank at an elevation of about 2,800 m (9,200 ft).
A small lava flow emerged and headed in the direction of the Leone Valley, just
above the much larger Bove Valley.
It continued for three days and was accompanied by small and sporadic eruptions
from two of the many vents at the top of this crater.

Etna erupted once again on 4 July 2024 causing the Catania Airport to close due
to volcanic ash in the air.
The airport reopened the next day. On 14 August 2024, Mt.
Etna erupted violently sending an ash cloud 9.5 km into the atmosphere.
Catania Airport was forced to close the following day.

Volcanic explosivity index of recent eruptions edit The Global Volcanism Program
has assigned a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VE I) to all of Mount Etna's
eruptions since January 1955: | VE I | Number of eruptions (total=49) |
|---|---| | VE I 0 | | | VE I 1 | | | VE I 2 | | | VE I 3 | Vortex rings edit In
the 1970s Etna erupted vortex rings, one of the first recorded events of this
type, which are extremely rare.

This happened again in 2000.
Video footage of the 8 June 2000 event was captured.
Another event occurred on 11 April 2013.
Other similar events occurred during the summer of 2023 (see photo) and 2024.
Geopolitical boundaries edit The borders of ten municipalities (Adrano,
Biancavilla, Belpasso, Bronte (from two sides), Castiglione di Sicilia, Maletto,
Nicolosi, Randazzo, Sant'Alfio, Zafferana Etnea) meet on the summit of Mount
Etna, making this a multipoint of elevenfold complexity.

Facilities edit Etna is one of Sicily's main tourist attractions, with thousands
of visitors every year.
The most common route is through the road leading to Sapienza Refuge ski area,
lying at the south of the crater at elevation of 1,910 m.
From the Refuge, a cableway runs uphill to an elevation of 2,500 m, from where
the crater area at 2,920 m is accessible.

Ferrovia Circumetnea - Round-Etna railway - is a narrow-gauge railway
constructed between 1889 and 1895.
It runs around the volcano in a 110-km long semi-circle starting in Catania and
ending in Riposto 28 km north of Catania.
There are two ski resorts on Etna: one at the Sapienza Refuge, with a chairlift
and three ski lifts, and a smaller one on the north, at Piano Provenzana near
Linguaglossa, with three lifts and a chairlift.

Sapienza Refuge was the finish of Stage 9 of the 2011 Giro d'Italia and Stage 4
of the 2017 Giro.
See also edit Notes edit- ^ a b c "Il cratere Voragine dell'Etna cresce, bordo
supera 3.400 metri - Notizie - Ansa.it".
Agenzia ANS A (in Italian). 18 September 2024.

Retrieved 19 September 2024.

• ^ a b The elevation varies with volcanic activity.
  The volcano last erupted 21 May 2023.
  It is frequently given as 3,350 m (10,990 ft), but many sources that support
  this concede that this is approximate.
  The coordinates given, which are consistent with SRT M data, are from a 2005 GP
  S survey.

The elevation data are based on a LIDA R (Light Detection and Ranging) survey
carried out in June 2007, see Neri, M.; et al.
(2008), "The changing face of Mount Etna's summit area documented with Lidar
technology", Geophysical Research Letters, 35 (9): L09305, Bibcode:2008GeoR
L..35.9305 N, doi:10.1029/2008G L033740 - ^ Pezzella, Francesca.
"L'Etna si supera.

Nuovo record di altezza a 3357 metri". www.ingv.it (in Italian).
Archived from the original on 10 August 2021. Retrieved 10 August 2021.

• ^ Apr 23, 2025: New Mount Etna Volcanic Eruption in Sicily on You Tube - ^
  Suda, alphaiota, 375 - ^ "Etna & Aeolian Islands 2012 - Cambridge Volcanology".
  www.volcano.group.cam.ac.uk.

October 2012. - ^ Laura Geggel (16 August 2021).
"Mount Etna is 100 feet taller than it was 6 months ago". Space.com.

• ^ "Italy volcanoes and Volcanics". Archived from the original on 1 July 2011.
• ^ Aelian, Hist.
  3, referenced under Aetnaeus in William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman
  Biography and Mythology - ^ Thomaidis, Konstantinos; Troll, Valentin R.; Deegan,
  Frances M.; Freda, Carmela; Corsaro, Rosa A.; Behncke, Boris; Rafailidis, Savvas
  (2021).

"A message from the 'underground forge of the gods': history and current
eruptions at Mt Etna".
Geology Today. 37 (4): 141-149. Bibcode:2021Geol T..37..141 T.
doi:10.1111/gto.12362. ISS N 1365-2451.

S2CI D 238802288. - ^ "Decade Volcanoes". United States Geological Survey.

• ^ Amore, Katia (4 May 2013). "Mount Etna Becomes a World Heritage Site".
  Italy Magazine. Archived from the original on 5 July 2024.
• ^ According to Adrian Room's book Place-names of the World.

Room dismisses the hypothesis that 'Etna' has a Greek derivation.
"Volcano - Podictionary Word of the Day". Blog.oup.com. 29 April 2010.
Retrieved 2 June 2011. - ^ "Woodhouse's English-Greek Dictionary Page Image".

Artflx.uchicago.edu. Archived from the original on 24 August 2014.
Retrieved 2 June 2011. - ^ Chevedden, Paul E.
(2010), "A Crusade from the First: The Norman Conquest of Islamic Sicily,
1060-1091", Al-Masaq: Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean, 22 (2): 191,
doi:10.1080/09503110.2010.488891, S2CI D 162316105 - ^ "mongibèllo".

Vocabolario Treccani (in Italian). Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana.
Retrieved 22 April 2024. - ^ Bruce, Christopher W.
The Arthurian Name Dictionary. Taylor & Francis.

ISB N 0-8153-2865-6.

• ^ Loomis, Roger Sherman Wales and the Arthurian Legend, pub.
  University of Wales Press, Cardiff 1956 and reprinted by Folcroft Press 1973,
  Chapter 5 King Arthur and the Antipodes, pp.
  70-71.
• ^ Loomis, Roger Sherman, Arthurian Tradition And Chrétien de Troyes pub.

Columbia University Press, New York 1948, pp. 66 & 306.

• ^ Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages: A Collaborative History ed.
  Roger Sherman Loomis, pub.
  Oxford University Press 1959, special edition for Sandpiper Books Ltd.
  2001, ISB N 0 19 811588 1 - ^ Martin-Schutz, Alicia.

Etna".

• ^ It has been suggested that this was the reason why the settlement of Atlit
  Yam (Israel), now below sea level, was suddenly abandoned around that time.
  See Pareschi, M. T.; Boschi, E. & Favalli, M.
  (2007), "Holocene tsunamis from Mount Etna and the fate of Israeli Neolithic
  communities", Geophysical Research Letters, 34 (16): L16317, Bibcode:2007GeoR
  L..3416317 P, doi:10.1029/2007G L030717, S2CI D 129407252.

This claim has been contested, however, as "there is no evidence of tsunami
deposits, nor of sudden and catastrophic changes such as damaged structures,
whole animal carcases or evidence of traumatic injury, such as might be expected
to result from a tsunami event" (Galili E., Rosen B., Evron M.
W., Hershkovitz I., Eshed V., Horwitz L.
(2020) Israel: Submerged Prehistoric Sites and Settlements on the Mediterranean
Coastline--the Current State of the Art.

In: Bailey G., Galanidou N., Peeters H., Jöns H., Mennenga M.
(eds) The Archaeology of Europe's Drowned Landscapes.
Coastal Research Library, vol 35. Springer, Cham).
See also, Galili, E., Horwitz, L.

K., Hershkovitz, I., Eshed, V., Salamon, A., Zviely, D., Weinstein‐Evron, M.,
and Greenfield, H.
(2008), Comment on "Holocene tsunamis from Mount Etna and the fate of Israeli
Neolithic communities" by Maria Teresa Pareschi, Enzo Boschi, and Massimiliano
Favalli, Geophysical Research Letters, 35, L08311.

• ^ Murray, J. B.; van Wyk de Vries, B.; Pitty, A.

(April 2018). "Gravitational sliding of the Mt.
Etna massif along a sloping basement" (PD F). Bulletin of Volcanology.
80 (4): 40.

Bibcode:2018B Vol...80...40 M. doi:10.1007/s00445-018-1209-1. PM C 6560784.
PMI D 31258237.

• ^ Gravitational collapse of Mount Etna's southeastern flank - ^ Tanguy, J.
  C.; Condomines, M.; Goff, M.; Chillemi, V.; Delfa, S.; Patanè, G.
  "Mount Etna eruptions of the last 2,750 years: Revised chronology and location
  through archeomagnetic and 226 Ra-230 Th dating" (PD F).

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Earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 23 July 2001. Retrieved 15 February 2022.

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Retrieved 5 December 2015.

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References edit- "Etna". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
Retrieved 25 December 2008. - Chester, D. K.; Duncan, A.

M.; Guest, J. E.; Kilburn, C. Mount Etna: The Anatomy of a Volcano.
Chapman and Hall. pp. ISB N 978-0-8047-1308-5.

External links edit- Mount Etna Nord Live Webcams by Linguaglossa H24 - "VON A
bulletin".

• Mount Etna Regional Park - Youtube video: eruption phases of Etna in 2018 (in
  Italian) - Smithsonian Institution: Global Volcanism Program: Etna - Footage of
  the 1971 eruption is featured in the 1979 film Days of Fury, hosted by Vincent
  Price

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