Introduction
Diplomatic relations between the Ottoman Empire and the France, had been intense until the reign of Selim III. İn the course of first serious diplomatic contacts in the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, these states defined each other as a good partner and they signed a military treaty including economic privileges for French. Later, the treaty had been maintained for long years by renewal.
Since France did not fight with Ottomans, they had an acceptance in the Ottoman Empire. This caused in the Ottoman Empire’s reforms the France was taking example by the Ottomans. Because other major states such as Russia and Austria, was a natural enemy for the Ottoman Empire and therefore, the France was a role model for the Ottoman Empire at its reform activities. Throughout 18th century, so many French officers had served in Ottoman army and they have influenced to Ottoman reforms at a certain level. This situation has continued until the reign of Selim III and it has determined reforms of the Selim III. Because Selim III was tended to make great changes at structure of the empire.
When he became the Sultan(1789), he ordered that establishing the permanent embassies in some of European countries especially the France. On the other hand, the Ottoman Empire was struggling against ideas of French Revolution nonetheless the French model still was preferred. Besides, Napoleon’s campaign against Egypt, has become another trauma for the Ottoman Empire. In this study, the Ottoman Empire - the France diplomatic relations has been examined surround of these developments.
Overview to Diplomatic Relations Between the France and the Ottoman Empire
Previously, The Ottoman Empire, in its foreign policy, had contacted with Genoese and Venetians especially as a trade partner. Particularly Venice’s had certain privileges and they were conducting intense trade activities in Ottoman ports. But, when it comes to 16th century, an incidence was started to change this situation. Emperor of France has wanted to help from Ottomans. It was golden opportunity for Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent who wants to devastate possible alliance against himself in Europe. This incident has started a new process in the European diplomacy that included to the Ottoman Empire, too.
First Ottoman-French diplomatic relations was established in 1525 in the time of Suleiman Ⅰ. When Emperor of France François I in difficulties towards the Charles V, he has demanded for Ottoman’s help. Suleiman has accepted the demand and so a treaty was signed between the Ottoman Empire and the France in 1526. According to that treaty the Ottoman Empire and the France would move together against their enemies. This agreement has begun a turning point in bilateral relations.
Later, during the Suleiman’s campaign towards to Hungary, the France contacted with Ottomans again. After the expedition Suleiman sent a letter with Barbarossa Hayrettin Pasha to the France in 1534. François Ⅰ also sent Jean de La Forrest as ambassador to Istanbul. End of the negotiations, the France and the Ottoman Empire agreed and signed a Peace, Friendship and Trade Treaty. With this agreement the Ottoman Empire gave some special economic rights known as capitulations for French merchants. The agreement has provided big facilities to the France in the Ottoman Empire’s lands including whole East Mediterranean and so the France raised in these regions amongst other European countries. In years of 1569, 1581 and 1597 the agreement was renewed and extended. In 1604, Ottomans gave to France the rights to protect the Christians and holy places with the right of the flag.
Since the 16th century, the relationship of the two states was peaceful despite some tensions occurred such as aid of France to Venice in the Cretan War. Many Frenchmen had resided and traded freely due to the capitulations given by the Ottoman Empire to the France.
The France was raising in Ottoman trade with other countries such as Holland, England. But they started to regression in the early 17th century because of their domestic affairs. Especially, due to religion wars they neglected to foreign affairs. But still, the France’s campaign against Habsburgs was a good thing for Ottomans. However, this situation has been started to change in a short time. In this period, they supported to Venetians in course of the Crete Expedition(1645-1699) against Ottomans. Moreover, France made military aid to western army which defending the Vienna against the Ottoman Empire. Later, because of the France’s expedition to pirates who living in the North Africa, Sultan angered. At last, the first serious cooling between the Ottoman Empire and the France has experienced. Throughout the next 5 years, the France has not represented in Ottoman capital city Istanbul.
British Empire was rapidly filling the gap which created by France. Upon this, France has started to seek a cure in order to repair relations with the Ottoman Empire. As a result of the seeking, the France has sent an ambassador to Istanbul again. In addition, the new ambassador was chosen amongst important persons carefully. Besides, thanks to the France’s diplomatic support the Ottoman Empire has become protector of the Polish throne. These efforts worked and the Ottoman Empire’s sent Yirmi sekiz Çelebi Mehmet Efendi to Paris as an ambassador in 1720. He stated that French sovereignty in Jerusalem and holy places was confirmed by the Sultan. The visit of the Ottoman’s ambassador Yirmi Sekiz Çelebi Mehmet Efendi has made great repercussions in the France and the friendship more improved between the two countries. The stories which told by Yirmi Sekiz Mehmet Çelebi, has made good effect on Ottoman statesmen. Aftermath, in 1739, France helped for the Ottoman Empire to signing of Agreement of Belgrade, with Habsburgs. In response to, commercial privileges of France, has been extended by the Ottoman Empire. Besides, according to the agreement, it would have been assumed that all bishops who living in Ottoman lands under the protection of French king.
When started to the Ottoman Empire and Russia war in 1768, France did some helps to Ottomans, for protect its interests in Mediterranean and Black sea. When arrived the Russian fleet to Mediterranean with support of English sailors, the France has perceived it as a danger for its influence in Mediterranean and they have informed to Ottoman authorities so that take precaution.
After these developments, the France has gained great prestige on the Sublime Porte. Envoys of the other countries was applying to French ambassador for help about the affairs at the Ottoman government. By the way some French officers came to Istanbul and they served for improvement of the Ottoman army. In light of these developments when started to Sultan Selim’s reign, circumstances were proper for his radical reforms.The Ottoman Empire and the France Diplomatic Relations in the Reign of the Selim Ⅲ
The France was a role model for the Selim Ⅲ and he just before becoming the sultan Selim was corresponding with Louis XVI. He had also sent İshak Bey a convert to İslam to study French Ways of life with the permission of Sultan Hamid Ⅰ. Selim had radical plans for refreshing the empire and France had great importance for him. However, firstly, he needed solve some problems. When he came the throne, the war was continuing with Russia and Austria. He had to end the war. He tried using the balance diplomacy and have ended the war by agreeing with Prussia and Sweden.
Later, Selim Ⅲ ordered that establishing new permanent embassy in some of Europe’s capital cities. Had it not been for the revolution in 1789, the France would have been the first destination for the newly established Ottoman resident ambassadors. But, due to the French Revolution Selim has approached cautiously to France and he sent Yusuf Agah Efendi as an ambassador to London. Because he had realized that the Ottoman Empire cannot survive without any alliance anymore. Due to the factors such as the French Revolution, the emergence of the eastern question, the adoption of balance politics by changing the Ottoman foreign policy understanding, and the lack of channels to follow developments in the international system was requiring new movements. For these reasons, the diplomacy reform consisted of the most important part of Selim’s westernization program and the France has great importance in this diplomacy.
2.1. Influence of the French Revolution to the Ottoman Empire-France Relations and Change of Attitude of French
Although the views of the revolution are described as heresy by the Ottomans, in early times of the French Revolution, the Ottoman Empire assumed it that as domestic affair of the France. Despite all protests of the British and Austrians, Ottomans has stayed silent towards France. Even, according to the Sublime Porte, interference of the other countries was nonsense. The France has benefited from this situation for providing recognize of the new regime. Besides, the French diplomats who were sent to Istanbul, has initiated to promoting the Ottomans to join the war against Austria and Russia. In years of 1792, 1795 and 1797, France has sent envoys for that purpose. Especially, Descorches was sent with two important tasks:
1- The official introducing of the French Republic(Revolutionary Government).
2- Providing that the Ottoman Empire entered the war with the France as a friend.
However, the Ottoman Empire had remained impartial because these demands were exceeding the Ottoman Empire’s power, but nonetheless they welcomed to French envoys. Because, the Ottoman Empire had needed to help for its reforms.
When many European countries declared war against the France, despite the Ottoman Empire has remained impartial, France have started to change its attitude against the Ottoman Empire. When France shared the Venice with Austria and occupied Preveza, Parga and some of Aegean islands, and was bordered with the Ottoman Empire. The France had started to provoke Greeks against Ottomans and started to dangerous provocations in Mora Peninsula. For this reason, the Ottoman Empire changed its stance towards France, too.
At the same time, news of Napoleon preparing the navy at the Toulon Port caused concern in the Ottoman Empire. Ottomans was suspecting that France would attack the Albania but there was some news that they would attack to Egypt, too. Indeed, French statesmen was ambitious about the expedition of the Egypt. The original French plan was undoubtedly to seize Egypt as a colony. The France had traditionally been allied with the Ottoman Empire, and at least for the moment there was no intention of disrupting this. The French plan relied heavily on the Ottomans staying at least neutral, counting on their hostility to the Mamluks (demonstrated in 1786) overweighing their anger at the French invasion of what was still officially an Ottoman province. The role of Islam had been considered, if not very realistically. Because this project has been thought for a long time. France’s interest in Egypt was particularly related to the Seven Years War (1756-1763), which lured many colonies in America and the Far East to England. It was important to find new dominions to compensate for these losses, and especially the benefits of having new colonies in the Post-Revolutionary Government were being discussed. Napoleon’s success in Egypt would provide France with a great advantage, particularly in the fight against England, as well as the opportunity to have a region with significant commercial potential. An important supporter of Napoleon in this project was Foreign Affairs minister Talleyrand who thinking the Egyptian would be an ideal colony for France.
Ottoman ambassador Esseyid Ali Efendi of Mora who being in Paris, had asked that what was the purpose of preparation for. As a response, French authorities has stated that the target of preparations never against the Ottomans. When ended of the preparing, Napoleon sailed to Malta and captured the island in spring of 1798. According to news which was heard by Ottomans, Napoleon had released all Muslim prisoners in Malta. Napoleon was aiming to increase his reputation in the eyes of the Muslims so, when he conquered the Egypt he would have welcomed by the Egyptians. The French arrived to Alexandria on 1 July, and on July 22, they captured Cairo with the Battle of Pyramids. Napoleon has published an announcement as soon as captured the city. This manifesto starts with Allah’s name and continues with that Allah is single and he has not a son. So, he could be good welcomed by the Egyptians.
French strategy was basing on that taking of Egypt by the France was good thing for Ottomans because they will have ended to sovereignty of Mamluk masters. These men who did not recognize the Ottoman authority also attacked the French merchants in Egypt by cooperating with the British and were harming the French trade. For these reasons, defeating the Mamluk masters would be useful both the Ottoman Empire and the France. Besides, the France has explained the occupation to European public opinion and Egyptians, as if the Ottoman Empire wanted it. Napoleon have printed the money on behalf of Selim Ⅲ to strengthen his claims. Besides, he discharged all Mamluks from offices and appointed the Turks instead of them. However, Ottomans has so raged because of this occupation, justifiably.
Ottomans has started to negotiations immediately with the Britain and the Russia who enemies of the France. The British admiral Nelson had in there already and he was seeking to Napoleon’s fleet. On the other hand, Napoleon’s position in Egypt was precarious. The French controlled only the Delta and Cairo; Upper Egypt was the preserve of the Mamluks and the Bedouins. In addition, the Britain and the Ottoman government joined forces to defeat Napoleon and drive him out of Egypt. On August 1, 1798, the British fleet under command of Lord Nelson destroyed the French ships by they lay at anchor at Abu Qir, thus isolating Napoleon's forces in Egypt. On September 11, Sultan Selim III declared war on France.
Napoleon invaded Syria before a possible Ottoman invasion but, he could not to take Acre. His forces retreated on May 20, 1799. On August 22, Napoleon went to France with a very small company, secretly left Egypt by leaving his troops behind and General Jean-Baptiste Kleber as his successor. Kleber found himself the unwilling commander in chief of a dispirited army with a bankrupt treasury. His main preoccupation was to secure the evacuation of his troops to France. When Britain rejected the evacuation plan, Kleber was forced to fight. When Ottomans captured Al-Arish France wanted to peace. According to agreement, all French prisoners would have been released and French army would have been left from Egypt within 3 months.
However, the agreement could not have applied due to the British denials. Because they had captured the letter containing agreement conditions which had been sent to France by the French army in Egypt. According the British, the conditions was favourable for the French. Thus, the war started again. British-Ottoman army driven the French until Cairo. The French army had completely weakened and they wanted to peace again. In 1801, Ottoman Empire and France signed a new evacuation agreement. In 1802, two sides signed the peace agreement. According to the agreement, the hostility between the two countries would have ended and capitulations would have carry on the effect again.Progressing Diplomatic Relations Between the Ottomans and the French After the War
After the Egypt adventure which a disaster for himself, Napoleon Bonaparte has tried to approach the Ottoman Empire. Ottomans were struggling a lot of problems such as domestic affairs, Wahhabism riots which threatening the holy cities and hajj ways, and Janissary responds against the new reforms. Ottomans had announced that their impartiality. But, the new developments in the Europe did not to leave Ottomans in peace. But still, Ottomans needed the good relations with the Europeans because of their reform movements.
In this period, Napoleon Bonaparte announced that himself as an emperor. In response to, big countries had established an alliance against him. Napoleon was wanting from Ottomans recognition his legality. In his goal to rebuild and strengthen Franco-Turkish relations. Napoleon benefited from two things: The first factor, riding in his favour was the long history of diplomatic and economic relations that had existed between the France and the Ottoman Empire, since the 16th Century. A second factor which benefited Napoleon, was that the Ottoman sultan Selim III had, been quite disposed towards the French, for most of his life. British and Russians was attempting to provide participation of the Ottoman Empire to the alliance.
The Russia has started to promote Christians who living in Georgia, Aegean Islands and the Balkans, for rebellion. British ambassador was making an effort intensively on the Sublime Porte. So, the Ottomans was forced to join to alliance with the Britain and the Russia as a result of their pressures. The agreement was signed secretly and it would have been valid for 9 years.
When France won the great success in the war, it began border with the Ottoman Empire. Austria and Russia had defeated. Thereupon, Selim Ⅲ sent as an ambassador Muhib Efendi which very well received in there, to Paris in 1805. He recognized that Napoleon as an emperor on behalf of the Ottoman Empire. Next year, French ambassador arrived Istanbul with the task of calling the Ottoman Empire to establishing alliance against the Russia. The Ottomans started to removing servants who being pro-Russia. They were appointed again after the Russian threats. Thereupon, Napoleon has announced that his new victory against Russia in Lena, to Selim Ⅲ and stated that himself will save his empire. Besides, Napoleon was encouraging Selim Ⅲ for attacking to Russia. Meanwhile, Russia had attacked to Ottoman Empire.