Due to its significant impact on deviating Western ethical system away from religion and religious institutions, we dedicate this article to one of the greatest philosophers of the rationalist movement during the Enlightenment era, especially in the second half of the 18th century. They contributed to the spread of explicit atheist thought, questioning the sanctity of divine self, revelation, and holy books.
They were also one of the most influential thinkers among the leaders of the French Revolution, passing away in the same year it erupted. Perhaps, among the philosophers of their time, they were the first to explicitly advocate against submission to supernatural forces, as it encourages people to surrender to earthly tyrants and prevents them from thinking independently and taking matters into their own hands.
They were also the first to explicitly call for the eradication of religion from people's lives entirely and to embrace only the rational materialistic scientific doctrine. This truly makes them the founder of the atheistic trend in the last quarter of the Enlightenment era. They are the French philosopher of German origin, "Baron d'Holbach."
The Baron Philosopher
The philosopher Baron "d'Holbach" (1723-1789 CE) was born and raised in Paris, within the upper echelons of society, amidst lavish palaces and extravagant parties. After graduating from university, he became acquainted with the intellectuals and philosophers of his time. His interest in rational philosophy and the scientific method grew, and for a period of 30 years, from 1750 to 1780 CE, he generously spent from his immense wealth inherited from his father and uncle.
He hosted one of the most prominent intellectual and literary salons in Paris, where he gathered leading philosophers, thinkers, intellectuals, nobility, and ambassadors from across Europe. Holbach's home became the first stop for many prominent international visitors to France. The salon was exclusively for men, many of whom openly declared their atheism, like Holbach, and embraced radical revolutionary political agendas that called for economic and social reforms and opposed hereditary rule.
In 1761 CE, Holbach published his book "The System of Nature," which attacked Christianity in general, considering it an obstacle to the moral progress of humanity. The writer-philosopher Voltaire criticized the book, objecting to its content and stating, "This book calls for detestable atheistic philosophy."
In 1770 CE, Holbach published his most famous work, "System of Nature," which was considered the pinnacle of French materialistic and atheistic philosophy. In it, he denied the existence of God and rejected the arguments presented to him in all discussions. He believed that the universe was nothing more than matter in motion, governed by natural laws of cause and effect.
He saw no need to resort to supernatural forces to explain the existence of things. These books sparked lengthy and heated responses from prominent figures. The Paris Parliament at the time condemned his books, "System of Nature" and "Good Sense," and ordered them to be publicly burned.
Holbach became famous in the 18th century for his atheism and criticisms of Christianity. Many researchers consider him a champion of atheism, as his criticism of religion, particularly Catholicism, contributed to the conviction of many that religion is the source of vice and unhappiness, and that virtue can only be promoted in individuals who seek to preserve themselves in their immediate knowledge-based world.
In his book "The System of Nature," Holbach goes far in his atheism when he argues that ignorance of natural causes led humans to conceive of gods, and that deception portrayed these gods in a terrible manner. As a result, humans lived unhappy lives because they were told that the Lord had condemned them to misery. This individual never desired to break free from these constraints because he learned that abandoning reason, mental weakness, and spiritual degradation were the means to obtain eternal happiness.
Ethics according to Holbach
Holbach considers ethics to be the source of lasting happiness for humans, as it achieves their enlightened self-interest. He believed that failure to recognize the means to achieve self-interest is a grave mistake, and that ethical principles lead to happiness and self-preservation. He argued that individuals who are ignorant of their true interests tend to engage in shameful indulgences at the expense of their own well-being, risking their lasting happiness.
However, the ethics Holbach speaks of stem from knowledge of nature, independent of religion, faith, and the afterlife. In this context, people desire what ethics offer, which generates a motivation to act morally. Ignorance of this leads people to fail in their proper conduct. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate this ignorance to identify the aspects that people are unaware of, the most dangerous forms of ignorance, and how to overcome them.
Holbach believed that one of the most dangerous forms of ignorance is ignorance of nature, particularly ignorance of the causes of good and evil within it. The belief in God and other religious beliefs, such as belief in heaven, hell, and immortality, drive us to seek self-preservation through misguided means.
Thus, Holbach's ethical system departs from religion and mystical beliefs, instead, it stems from the existence and perceptible entities that the natural order imposes on human activity in various domains. In his book "The System of Nature," Holbach expresses this idea by saying: "Abandon your mysterious hopes, free yourself from overwhelming fears, and do not attempt to immerse your opinions in an impenetrable future.
Therefore, only think about making yourself happy in the existence that you know. If you wish to preserve yourself, be moderate and reasonable. If you seek to make your existence lasting, do not be excessive in pleasure, and refrain from anything that may harm yourself or others."
Holbach's ethical views extended to politics and the state, where he continued to develop his concept of a just state that arises to secure the general welfare of the people. He established the theory of the social contract between society and its elected representatives to achieve the interests and well-being of individuals. This concept was further elaborated by the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, which we will discuss later.
And the social contract, according to Holbach, goes through two stages:
The first stage is social, where individuals realize that they need others to help them achieve their well-being. They make agreements with each other and unite to obtain personal security, property, and other benefits for the community. Holbach expresses this by saying, "Help me, and I will help you with all my talents. Work for my happiness if you want me to care about your abilities. Secure for me significant advantages sufficient to convince me to relinquish a portion of what I possess." Holbach believes that this type of social contract between individuals in society never breaks, as long as the elected representatives succeed in securing the general welfare of the community.
The second stage of the social contract, it is the stage where this social contract can be broken when the government (the elected representatives) fails to secure the general welfare, which primarily consists of ensuring property and basic freedoms such as freedom of expression and belief. In such a case, the society has the right to revolt for change.
Holbach sees the right to revolution as a product of the natural instinct for self-preservation. He expects obedience to authority to collapse when individuals feel the need to secure their lives. This is also why it is essential for the authorities to take care of and educate citizens. When they fail to do so, citizens become governed not by reason but by emotion, resulting in revolution.
Furthermore, Holbach strongly criticized the abuse of power within France and beyond. He defended private property and called for the necessity for all citizens to have the right to establish their own businesses. He also advocated for the educated classes to reform the corrupt system of governance.
Previous Parts
A Philosophical Journey (1): Moralphobia
A Philosophical Journey (2): How Does The Moral Struggle Manifest In Islam?
A Philosophical Journey (3): Ethics In The Space Of The Greeks And The Darkness Of The Middle Ages
A Philosophical Journey (4): Western View Of Ethics In The Renaissance
A Philosophical Journey (5): Conflict of Ethics and the Age of Enlightenment
A Philosophical Journey (6): The Age of Enlightenment and the Tendencies of the Revolution of Reason.
A Philosophical Journey (7): The Age of Enlightenment and the Revolt Against Religion - Voltaire's Edition
A Philosophical Journey (7): The Age of Enlightenment and the Revolt Against Religion - Denis Diderot Edition