My Impression of a Demagogue, and Loyal Followers
Demagogue. Does the word have any true meaning? It is hurled freely by opposing sides in a political debate. But is there objective criteria by which we can judge whether actions or speech do rise to the level of demagoguery? In pursuit of an answer to this question I consulted respected figures in the fields of communication and rhetoric. I not only wanted to understand the term, 'demagogue', but also wanted to learn something about the psychological profile of those most likely to be attracted to a demagogue.
Although I personally refrain from using this term--because it is so often misused and misunderstood--still, given the criteria offered by legitimate sources, it seems the term 'demagogue may be applied reasonably to certain public figures.
Joseph McCarthy, U.S. Politician, 1950s
Picture credit: U. S. Senate Archives. Public domain.
Not many people can boast of having a movement named after them. However, Joseph McCarthy (better known as 'Joe') can lay claim to this distinction. According to J. Justin Gustainis, (Professor Emeritus of Communication Studies at SUNY Plattsburgh,) McCarthy is an "obvious and noncontroversial" candidate for inclusion in the demagogue category.
McCarthy crusaded against communists. He believed communist operatives infiltrated government agencies, the arts, journalism, academia--just about every aspect of U. S. society. He whipped the country into a frenzy with his impassioned speeches about the omnipresent and invisible threat of communism. In pursuit of subversives, McCarthy destroyed the careers, and lives, of many people. In the end, though McCarthy himself was discredited and died a ruined man.
Despite this history, and McCarthy's eventual fall, there are still those who believe in his cause. I actually met one of these loyalists (in the 1990s), a man who held to the belief that McCarthy had been wronged. It is precisely this disconnect, between views of 'experts' and ordinary people, which highlights the difficulty of defining and using the term 'demagogue.
Alcibiades,General in Ancient Greece: Demagogue?
Picture credit: Walter Crane (1845-1915) in The story of Greece: told to boys and girls, by Macgregor, Mary. Public domain.
Alcibiades has been characterized by many historians as a demagogue. This seems to be on the basis of his having given speeches that swayed a crowd to his purpose. He was certainly vain, duplicitous and self-serving, but not all agreed he was a demagogue. Thucydides himself refrained from such a characterization.
The model for my demagogue GIF at the top of the page was someone who has been characterized as a demagogue by many historians. He also had, and continues to have, thousands of devoted admirers. This personality was said to have had a charismatic presence and the gift of oratory. He gave many rousing speeches from his balcony in Rome. Can you guess who he is?
Here he is, giving a speech.
Demagogue and Group Identity
One of the clearest discussions of demagoguery I unearthed was offered by Patricia Roberts-Miller, Professor of Rhetoric and Writing at the University of Texas, Austin. Dr. Roberts-Miller traces the history of the term 'Demagogue' from its origins in ancient Greece, (where once it meant 'leader of the people',) to modern times, where it has taken on quite a different meaning. Generally, when someone uses the term (according to Dr. Roberts-Miller) they suggest that an opponent is employing "effective rhetoric on behalf of a political agenda I don't like."
Dr. Roberts-Miller analyzes common traits of demagogues across time and cultures. She anchors her conclusions in group identification. A demagogue creates the dynamic of an 'ingroup' and an 'outgroup'.
Image created (by me) from two Pixabay (public domain) images:Group and Keep Out
Demagogues, according to Roberts-Miller, are "always polarizing". They describe the world, and people, in "binary paired terms". Something is either strong, or it is weak. Something is either punished or rewarded. In this binary universe, characterizing the 'outgroup' is simple. The ingroup is good. The outgroup is bad. The ingroup is strong. The outgroup is weak. The ingroup deserves reward. The outgroup deserves punishment.
Naive Realism
Roberts-Miller explains that this kind of binary clarity is self-reinforcing. It rejects complicated thinking which might muddle the message. It gives the illusion that one "sees the world exactly as it is". That one is a realist, and others are not. Roberts-Miller calls this perception 'Naive Realism'.
Naive Realism Diagram
Picture credit: Original uploader to Wikimedia Commons was RobinH at en. wikibooks. CC 3.0
The naive realist
According to Roberts' Miller, naive realists, by favoring simple explanations, are subject to confirmation bias., "since people tend to perceive more easily and quickly any information that confirms their current beliefs." This, the professor asserts, not only increases the possibility that one may be wrong, but more regrettably, that one may be wrong "over and over again.'
Pol Pot
Picture credit: Romanian Communism Online Photo Collection under the digital ID 45014X1X4. Free use with attribution.
In Mindful Leadership: Emotional Intelligence Collection, by Harvard Business Review, the authors assert that demagogues spread messages that "elicit negative emotions...a mix of fear and anger". It's "us against them" and fear of what they will take from us. The authors cite as a specific example, Pol Pot.
Another author, Andrew Lam, writing in the Chicago Tribune explains that Pol Pot's message was clear: "The city is corrupt...impure...alien." It is full of foreigners who rule over the poor in rural Cambodia. "The city, therefore, must be obliterated...its residents" re-educated. Pol Pot's obliteration and re-education campaign claimed an estimated two million lives
Rwanda
Photographs of Genocide Victims, Genocide Memorial Center, Kigali, Rwanda
Picture credit: Adam Jones, Ph.D, CC 3.0 license
In 1962, Rwanda gained its independence from colonial rule. A cycle of internecine violence ensued between Hutu and Tutsi populations. In 1994, mass genocide of Tutsis by Hutus was carried out. Classic demagoguery (as defined by the previously cited authorities in this blog) was a powerful instrument in executing the genocide. The message: Tutsi were outsiders, were to blame for Hutu poverty,and were a danger to the Hutus, who "had a right to defend themselves."
Demagogue in All of Us
Ryan Skinnel and Jillian Murphy, writing in Rhetorical Society Quarterly, assert that, "we are all nascent demagogues". The tendency to engage in demagoguery, according to these authors, increases as the level of demagogic rhetoric increases generally. The authors state: "demagoguery requires.. conditions that make it argumentatively effective... When those conditions exist, everyone engages in demagoguery."
Where Does This Leave Us?
Pixabay
I know where it leaves me. There are tools by which to measure behavior if we want to classify something as demagogic. However, I think we ultimately end up in a swamp of accusatory subjectivity. Language is only effective if it is understood. When we speak, it is probably not to an audience of rhetoric scholars. So labeling someone a demagogue will not likely advance our cause.
On the other hand, as an exercise, for our own edification, we might assess the demagoguery of specific public figures. We can measure their behavior according to the criteria set forth by scholars in this blog: Does the figure use polarizing language? Is there an ingroup and an outgroup? Are there simple, binary choices--right/wrong, weak/strong, punishment/reward, us/them?
When we have finished this exercise we can satisfy ourselves that we are probably correct in our assessment. However, our exercise is not likely to have utility in discourse with those who do not share our views.
Writing this blog helped to clarify my thinking and my understanding of demagoguery. It also gave me some insight into those who are persuaded by demagogic rhetoric. I hope you also feel this exercise was worth the effort.
Thank you for reading my blog
Hive on!
Sources
1.Rhetorical Society Quarterly: Demagoguery and Political Rhetoric: A Review of the Literature
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3885904?seq=1
2.SUNY Plattsburgh https://www.plattsburgh.edu/academics/schools/arts-sciences/communication-studies/faculty/gustainis-justin.html
3.History.com Joseph McCarthy Meets His Match https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/joseph-mccarthy-meets-his-match
4.Ancient World Magazine Alcibiades Pragmatist Adventurer https://www.ancientworldmagazine.com/articles/political-pragmatist-adventures-alcibiades/
5.Parcourir les Collections Thucydides and Alcibiades
https://www.persee.fr/doc/reg_0035-2039_1952_num_65_304_3261
6.Oxford Academic Mussolini: Study of a Demagogue and Mussolini and Italian Fascism https://academic.oup.com/ia/article-abstract/41/1/137/2664779?redirectedFrom=fulltext
7.National Communication Association Mussolini Crowd Psychologist https://nca.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00335635909385735?journalCode=rqjs20#.XvwAbud7ncc
8.Atlas Obscura Mussolini's Balcony https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/mussolinis-balcony
9.U. of Texas Faculty https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/rhetoric/faculty/redball
10.Tales of Times Forgotten A Short History of Demagoguery https://talesoftimesforgotten.com/2016/11/15/a-short-history-of-demagoguery/
11.Patricia Roberts-Miller Characteristics of Demagoguery https://www.patriciarobertsmiller.com/characteristics-of-demagoguery/
12.Field Effect Confirmation Bias And the Power of Disconfirming Evidence https://fs.blog/2017/05/confirmation-bias/
13.Harvard Business Review Mindful Leadership: Emotional Intelligence Collection
14.Chicago Tribune Pol Pot's Curse Lives on--Rural Rage Against the City https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1998-04-28-9804280027-story.html
15.BBC News Khmer Rouge: Cambodia's years of brutality https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-10684399
16.South African History Online Rwanda https://www.sahistory.org.za/place/rwanda
17.Discover Magazine Tutsi Probably Differ Genetically From the Hutu https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/tutsi-probably-differ-genetically-from-the-hutu
18.Human Rights Watch.org Genocide: Ideology and Organization https://www.hrw.org/legacy/backgrounder/africa/rwanda0406/4.htm
19.Rhetorical Society Quarterly Rhetoric’s Demagogue | Demagoguery’s Rhetoric: An Introduction https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02773945.2019.1610636?scroll=top&needAccess=true
Illustration Sources Not Already Cited
1.Gif at the top of the page:
Octopus:Pixabay
Mouth:Pixabay
Face:Benito Mussolini 1930 Public Domain
2.Youtube Mussolini speech
