African issues are multifaceted. On the one hand there is a sense of deep resentment towards the colonial conquests of Africa, which some argue are still taking place to this day, on the other there is a more obvious issue of poor governance, at the behest of those in power of many modern African States. In this essay, I will attempt to explain the two varying concepts, draw correlations between the two, as well as a few parallels.
Introduction: Understanding Colonialism
To understand the colonial issues Africa faced, we need to revisit them briefly. I will not go into detail about the various relationships between the colonial powers and the nations that were conquered either by peaceful or combative means, I will instead focus on the main events and pivotal moments within Colonial-History.
“Between the 1870s and 1900, Africa faced European imperialist aggression, diplomatic pressures, military invasions, and eventual conquest and colonization. At the same time, African societies put up various forms of resistance against the attempt to colonize their countries and impose foreign domination. By the early twentieth century, however, much of Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, had been colonized by European powers.” (Iweriebor, 2011)
It is important to note that Colonialism and the expansion of European interests within Africa, did not occur by accident or by chance. There was a very good reason for colonialism to take place. And that reason I believe lay solely at the call of the Industrial Revolution. Although the Industrial Revolution is believed to have reached its peak during the 1840’s, in Britain, its effects were felt around Europe well into the 19th Century. Evidence for this can be found in the fact that The Congo. Came under the direct control of King Leopold in 1885, after the Berlin Conference was concluded. “… Among these territories, the Congo was a unique case. Granted to King Leopold II of Belgium, the Congo was a “personal” concession for the King, rather than a colony.” (Achberger, n.d.)
The case in the Belgian Congo (Now the D.R.C) is unique in the sense that a monarch used the territory that was granted to him, as his own personal property, rather than a colony of the state. The distinction is important, because while the wealth of the colonies went to the various empire-states, the proceeds from the conquest of The Congo, went almost exclusively to King Leopold himself. Couple this with the fact that King Leopold was tyrannical in his approach, and the reasons for resistance from native African Nationalists and Pan Africanist movements, became more and more clear as time progressed under colonial control.
The Impact of the Two World Wars, as well as The Cold War on Colonies and Colonial Resistance
“…the outbreak of the First World War. This major historical event became known as The Great War. The main belligerent European countries involved in the War were imperial powers with large colonial territories in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. The First World War was the first war fought along modern industrial lines. What marked its difference from previous wars, in Europe, is the scale and brutality of casualties inflicted on both sides. Between July 1914, when the war began, and November 1918, when it was concluded, nine million soldiers were killed and twenty-one million wounded.” (Anon., 2013)
The Colonies were expected to fight on the behalf of their empire-states. For instance, because South Africa was a colony of Great Britain the South African armed forces were expected to fight on behalf of the United Kingdom. Tanzanians and anyone within German-West Africa were expected to fight on the opposite side, and this created issues of unity amongst many Africans.
” When war broke out in Europe in 1914, English and French troops prepared to seize the four German colonies in Africa (German East Africa, German South-West Africa, Togoland and Cameroon). Fighting was particularly brutal in German East Africa where German General Lettow-Vorbeck adopted a guerilla strategy, drawing more and more areas into the war. More than 200,000 bearers transported weapons, ammunition and food for the troops.” (Fischer, 2014)
The various resistance movements, used the World Wars, and the period of the Cold War, as a catalyst for their agenda to break away from the colonies “These factors contributed to the rise of militant mass African nationalism that, increasingly, pushed for the end of colonial rule and succeeded in achieving independence in a number of countries, beginning with Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah in 1957. The new form of nationalism was different from that of the inter-war years in that it was no longer petitioning for reforms by demanding independence and was, therefore, more confrontationist.” (Mlambo, 2016)
During this Period, many African states were able to draw-up mass support for their causes, across different socio-economic and political backgrounds. They no longer wanted to share in the wealth of their respective territories, with their colonisers. They wanted Africans to be responsible for African affairs. Slowly but surely, decolonization was taking place. This process, however was not without hindrance, especially in places like Zimbabwe (Formally Rhodesia) where in 1962, after fears that the government was making concessions towards Pan-Africanists, by granting them a franchise and seats in parliament, a group of right-wing white settlers elected Ian Douglass Smith as Prime-Minister of Rhodesia. He was willing to take an approach milder to Apartheid, which was standard policy in South Africa at the time. (Mlambo, 2016)
It is important to note that Colonialism left a legacy that could only be legitimized after the colonisers left. The infrastructure that came with colonialism, in many areas of Africa, has now fallen apart, leaving many resentful over the legacy of Colonialism. However, to understand that, we need to look at African states in modernity.
African States in the Post-Colonial Era
The notion that Africa needed colonialization to bring it civilization is a complex issue. While the colonisers may have brought with them the infrastructure, technology and technological know-how that is present in many African states today, a lot of the people within these states no longer enjoy the fruits of these luxuries. This may have to do with a lack of upkeep and maintenance for these amenities. However, the more pressing issue is not simply about the deterioration of the infrastructure that was left behind, but more so, the breakdown of the states themselves.
This idea has become more apparent in recent years, as the War on Terror has indirectly engulfed many African States, both northern and Sub-Saharan. According to Howard, the practice of facilitating terrorism is becoming more wide-spread within Africa. She states:
“Plagued by systematic state failure, sub-Saharan Africa’s failed states have helped facilitate internationally sponsored terrorist networks and operations. However, until recently, this type of activity was primarily relegated to North Africa and the Horn. But that has begun to change. Now, what was once a seemingly benign terrorist presence in sub-Saharan Africa is starting to transform into a movement, with states such as Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) now lending arms, financial support, and radical militants s to the extremist jihadist movement... Al Qaeda” (Howard, 2010)
Many people from academics to laymen, have a notion that many African states have failed. This cannot be said with cynicism, and we need to have an empirical view of what a failed-state is. According to the International Committee of the Red Cross, a failed-state has three aspects to it. The first aspect, or issue, is that of a geographical nature. It can either have a natural air to it, such as drought, and/or poor border enforcement, which is a socio-political issue. The second issue arises out of political incompetence, such as a breakdown of law and order within the state. The third issue lies in the fact that many of those officiating over these states are corrupt in one way or another. (Thurer, 1999)
“because these three aspects play a role in allowing terrorism to spread within Sub-Saharan Africa… civilians within these failed-states are drawn to political violence as a reaction to their poor living conditions.” (Shneier, 2016) This may make the situation worse within these African States. However, I do not believe that Terrorism is the only culprit to blame when it comes to the ideas of bad governance and the notion of a failed-state. I believe that the Cold War, and the proxy wars that took place in Africa, because of it are just as to blame for the African states in modernity.
The Cold War as a Precursor for Hardships on the African Continent
“There can be little doubt that there is a present need for coöperation among the newly independent African states, that a working arrangement, at least on a regional basis, is overdue. Unfortunately, the situation inherited from the colonial powers, while making plain the necessity for such agreement, has tended to hinder it. Within each nation there are serious discontinuities arising from the existence of different ethnic groups, language differences, disparities in ideological orientation and basic economic conceptions.” (Olympic, 1961)
The fact that America and the Soviet Union had a collective interest in Africa, during the Cold War, may have caused more issues on dividing Africa politically, than colonialism did. One could argue that the cold war gave way for a new type, or neo-colonial facet to this story. Evidence for this can be found during the South African Border War, and preceding that, the Namibian War of Independence.
One of South Africa’s reasons for enforcing and maintaining the policy of Apartheid was that the Apartheid regime to draw comparisons between the need for continued segregation, and the need to stop the spread of Communism within the region. This is because most of the revolutionary movements that threatened the Apartheid structure, were comprised of native African socialists or communists. Such as SWAPO (South West African Peoples Organization) of Namibia the MPLA (Peoples Movement for the Liberation of Angola) of Angola, the ANC (African National Congress), and the PAC (Pan Africanist Congress of Azania) of South Africa.
It is clear that Capitalistic interests as well as Communistic interests had stakes within the African Continent, gave way to a power-struggle, that I believe is akin to colonialism.
Mlambo states:
“A consequence of the political legacy of colonialism was the emergence of military rule and dictatorship. The conservative economic policies followed by most independent African states, coupled with one-party rule created the potential for the military overthrow of many conservative governments. Shillington argues that by the 1970s military rule was a serious political option for many African leaders – in other words, it became the rule rather than the exception. From the 1960s coups and counter-coups became the most effective means of changing governments.” (Mlambo, 2016)
Conclusion
It is my belief that if it was not for the influence of the Cold War on Africa, there would be no need for these violent power-struggles within African states. And that the Cold War gave rise to the possibility of bad-governance, and a new neo-colonial prospect within many African States.
Colonialism left a legacy that is empirically undeniable, but I believe it to be more of a domino-effect. If it wasn’t for colonialism, there would be no resentment towards Europe. If it wasn’t for the Cold War, there would be no political divide, leading to bad governance within the African states. And these issues have culminated into the idea that many African states have failed, by virtue of bad governance alone. As stated at the beginning of the assignment, the issues are multifaceted. I believe that Africa is a great case of Cause and Effect, and we cannot simply blame the legacy of Colonialism or bad leadership, in their separate rights.
References
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