Programming
Early PLCs, up to the mid-1990s, were programmed using proprietary programming panels or special-purpose programming terminals, which often had dedicated function keys representing the various logical elements of PLC programs.[2] Some proprietary programming terminals displayed the elements of PLC programs as graphic symbols, but plain ASCII character representations of contacts, coils, and wires were common. Programs were stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities for printing and documentation were minimal due to lack of memory capacity. The oldest PLCs used non-volatile magnetic core memory. More recently, PLCs are programmed using application software on personal computers, which now represent the logic in graphic form instead of character symbols. The computer is connected to the PLC through USB, Ethernet, RS-232, RS-485, or RS-422 cabling. The programming software allows entry and editing of the ladder-style logic. In some software packages, it is also possible to view and edit the program in function block diagrams, sequence flow charts and structured text. Generally the software provides functions for debugging and troubleshooting the PLC software, for example, by highlighting portions of the logic to show current status during operation or via simulation. The software will upload and download the PLC program, for backup and restoration purposes. In some models of programmable controller, the program is transferred from a personal computer to the PLC through a programming board which writes the program into a removable chip such as an EPROM.
PLC Hardware Components A central processing unit (CPU) serves as the brain of the PLC. It is a -16 or -32 bit microprocessor consisting of a memory chip and integrated circuits for control logic, monitoring, and communicating. The CPU directs the PLC to execute control instructions, communicate with other devices, carry out logic and arithmetic operations, and perform internal diagnostics. The CPU runs memory routines, constantly checking the PLC (PLC controller is redundant) to avoid programming errors and ensure the memory is undamaged.
Functionality
The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to include sequential relay control, motion control, process control, distributed control systems, and networking. The data handling, storage, processing power, and communication capabilities of some modern PLCs are approximately equivalent to desktop computers. PLC-like programming combined with remote I/O hardware, allow a general-purpose desktop computer to overlap some PLCs in certain applications. Desktop computer controllers have not been generally accepted in heavy industry because the desktop computers run on less stable operating systems than do PLCs, and because the desktop computer hardware is typically not designed to the same levels of tolerance to temperature, humidity, vibration, and longevity as the processors used in PLCs. Operating systems such as Windows do not lend themselves to deterministic logic execution, with the result that the controller may not always respond to changes of input status with the consistency in timing expected from PLCs. Desktop logic applications find use in less critical situations, such as laboratory automation and use in small facilities where the application is less demanding and critical, because they are generally much less expensive than PLCs.
Basic and complex functions
The most basic function of a Programmable logic controller (PLC) is to receive inputs from status components, which can be from sensors or switches. Some of the basic components of a PLC are input modules, a central processing unit, output modules, and a programming device. When an input is activated, some output will also be activated by whatever the machine is told to do. Some examples of this are setting a timer to 10ms, activating the timer and once 10ms have passed a siren goes off. Some advantages to using a PLC over other programming devices are the user doesn't have to rewire anything, the PLC has very little downtime in between running different programs, the user can program off-line, and PLC's aren't time constrained. If the user tells the PLC to perform an output in 10ms, it will perform the output in 10ms unlike other programs like LabView which can have a delay in activation.
Timers and counters
The main function of a timer is to keep an output on for a specific length of time. A good example of this is a garage light, where you want power to be cut off after 2 minutes so as to give someone time to go into the house. The three different types of timers that are commonly used are a Delay-OFF, a Delay-ON, and a Delay-ON-Retentive. A Delay-OFF timer activates immediately when turned on, counts down from a programmed time before cutting off, and is cleared when the enabling input is off. A Delay-ON timer is activated by input and starts accumulating time, counts up to a programmed time before cutting off, and is cleared when the enabling input is turned off. A Delay-ON-Retentive timer is activated by input and starts accumulating time, retains the accumulated value even if the (ladder-logic) rung goes false, and can be reset only by a RESET contact. Counters are primarily used for counting items such as cans going into a box on an assembly line. This is important because once something is filled to its max the item needs to be moved on so something else can be filled. Many companies use counters in PLC's to count boxes, count how many feet of something is covered, or to count how many pallets are on a truck. There are three types of counters, Up counters, Down counters, and Up/Down counters. Up counters count up to the preset value, turn on the CTU (Count Up output) when the preset value is reached, and are cleared upon receiving a reset. Down counters count down from a preset value, turns on the CTD (Count Down output) when 0 is reached, and are cleared upon reset. Up/Down counters count up on CU, count down on CD, turn on CTUD (Count Up/Down output) when the preset value is reached, and cleared on reset.
Programmable logic relay (PLR)
In more recent years, small products called PLRs (programmable logic relays), and also by similar names, have become more common and accepted. These are much like PLCs, and are used in light industry where only a few points of I/O (i.e. a few signals coming in from the real world and a few going out) are needed, and low cost is desired. These small devices are typically made in a common physical size and shape by several manufacturers, and branded by the makers of larger PLCs to fill out their low end product range. Popular names include PICO Controller, NANO PLC, and other names implying very small controllers. Most of these have 8 to 12 discrete inputs, 4 to 8 discrete outputs, and up to 2 analog inputs. Size is usually about 4" wide, 3" high, and 3" deep. Most such devices include a tiny postage-stamp-sized LCD screen for viewing simplified ladder logic (only a very small portion of the program being visible at a given time) and status of I/O points, and typically these screens are accompanied by a 4-way rocker push-button plus four more separate push-buttons, similar to the key buttons on a VCR remote control, and used to navigate and edit the logic. Most have a small plug for connecting via RS-232 or RS-485 to a personal computer so that programmers can use simple Windows applications for programming instead of being forced to use the tiny LCD and push-button set for this purpose. Unlike regular PLCs that are usually modular and greatly expandable, the PLRs are usually not modular or expandable, but their price can be two orders of magnitude less than a PLC, and they still offer robust design and deterministic execution of the logics.
PLC compared with other control systems
Allen-Bradley PLC installed in a control panel Control center with an Allen-Bradley PLC for a RTO. PLCs are well adapted to a range of automation tasks. These are typically industrial processes in manufacturing where the cost of developing and maintaining the automation system is high relative to the total cost of the automation, and where changes to the system would be expected during its operational life. PLCs contain input and output devices compatible with industrial pilot devices and controls; little electrical design is required, and the design problem centers on expressing the desired sequence of operations. PLC applications are typically highly customized systems, so the cost of a packaged PLC is low compared to the cost of a specific custom-built controller design. On the other hand, in the case of mass-produced goods, customized control systems are economical. This is due to the lower cost of the components, which can be optimally chosen instead of a "generic" solution, and where the non-recurring engineering charges are spread over thousands or millions of units. For high volume or very simple fixed automation tasks, different techniques are used. For example, a cheap consumer dishwasher would be controlled by an electromechanical cam timer costing only a few dollars in production quantities. A microcontroller-based design would be appropriate where hundreds or thousands of units will be produced and so the development cost (design of power supplies, input/output hardware, and necessary testing and certification) can be spread over many sales, and where the end-user would not need to alter the control. Automotive applications are an example; millions of units are built each year, and very few end-users alter the programming of these controllers. However, some specialty vehicles such as transit buses economically use PLCs instead of custom-designed controls, because the volumes are low and the development cost would be uneconomical.[14] Very complex process control, such as used in the chemical industry, may require algorithms and performance beyond the capability of even high-performance PLCs. Very high-speed or precision controls may also require customized solutions; for example, aircraft flight controls. Single-board computers using semi-customized or fully proprietary hardware may be chosen for very demanding control applications where the high development and maintenance cost can be supported. "Soft PLCs" running on desktop-type computers can interface with industrial I/O hardware while executing programs within a version of commercial operating systems adapted for process control needs.[14] Programmable controllers are widely used in motion, positioning, or torque control. Some manufacturers produce motion control units to be integrated with PLC so that G-code (involving a CNC machine) can be used to instruct machine movements.[15][citation needed] PLCs may include logic for single-variable feedback analog control loop, a proportional, integral, derivative (PID) controller. A PID loop could be used to control the temperature of a manufacturing process, for example. Historically PLCs were usually configured with only a few analog control loops; where processes required hundreds or thousands of loops, a distributed control system (DCS) would instead be used. As PLCs have become more powerful, the boundary between DCS and PLC applications has been blurred. PLCs have similar functionality as remote terminal units. An RTU, however, usually does not support control algorithms or control loops. As hardware rapidly becomes more powerful and cheaper, RTUs, PLCs, and DCSs are increasingly beginning to overlap in responsibilities, and many vendors sell RTUs with PLC-like features, and vice versa. The industry has standardized on the IEC 61131-3 functional block language for creating programs to run on RTUs and PLCs, although nearly all vendors also offer proprietary alternatives and associated development environments. In recent years "safety" PLCs have started to become popular, either as standalone models or as functionality and safety-rated hardware added to existing controller architectures (Allen-Bradley Guardlogix, Siemens F-series etc.). These differ from conventional PLC types as being suitable for use in safety-critical applications for which PLCs have traditionally been supplemented with hard-wired safety relays. For example, a safety PLC might be used to control access to a robot cell with trapped-key access, or perhaps to manage the shutdown response to an emergency stop on a conveyor production line. Such PLCs typically have a restricted regular instruction set augmented with safety-specific instructions designed to interface with emergency stops, light screens, and so forth. The flexibility that such systems offer has resulted in rapid growth of demand for these controllers.