(This article was written in 2014 so some of the cited links might not work.)
CLONING
The idea of creating a genetically identical imitation of a single living organism has always enthralled scientists. This thought lead researchers throughout the world performing cloning experiments. Since then cloning have always been challenged morally and considered as a violation of human rights even for using a clone as an instrument for research. People have all sorts of questions like - Is it a good thing to do? Is cloning O.K. with God? Or is it against his will? We only put a sense of moral and a fear or wrath of God. But do we know what cloning really is? Is it a deed of such evil? Let’s take it to the end and then decide whether it’s ethical or unethical.
This idea has not only inspired science fiction movie makers but gaming industry as well. And by seeing such movies people now have this idea that a clone in his adulthood can be created in a laboratory with the same memories as that of his original. But in reality that is impossible. And thinking of a clone taking over its original’s identity or even a clone army taking over the world is completely absurd.
To let one understand cloning is the process in which the DNA of a female egg cell is replaced with different DNA from another cell through the procedure known as “Nuclear Transfer” or “Nuclear Substitution.” In the operation, the nucleus of a cell and contains the DNA molecules from an unfertilized female egg cell, is carefully removed and then replaced with the nucleus from a cell of another person. Then, the cell is manipulated into believing that it has been fertilized and is then implanted into the womb of the mother, a process to that of in-vitro fertilization. Afterwards, the embryo develops into a fetus and delivered after nine months, just like any other human baby and will for all obvious reasons much younger than the original person not sharing common memories. [1]
Now that we know what cloning is but is it possible to achieve it? From the year 1880, professors, researchers and scientists have performed numerous experiments on various single cellular organisms, plants & animals. These experiments either successful or not proved as a guide to the new team of researchers, on studying them they kept on improving. In the early 1900s, during mankind’s path to success a German embryologist, Hans Spemann in the year 1901 split a 2-cell salamander embryo into two parts, which developed into two complete organisms. This result showed that early embryo cells retain all the genetic information necessary to develop into a new organism. In the year 1914, Hans Spemann performs the first successful nuclear transfer experiments. And later in 1938, he published the results of his nuclear transfer experiments. In his book "Embryonic Development and Induction", Spemann proposed a "fantastical experiment" to transfer one cell's nucleus into an egg without a nucleus, providing the basis for successive cloning experiments. [2]
After Hans Spemann, one after another claims of creating a successful clone were heard. In 1962, John Gurdon of Oxford University claimed that he had cloned a frog. In 1964, F. E. Steward of Cornell University successfully grew a complete carrot plant from root cell. In 1979, Karl Illmensee claimed of cloning three mice. In 1984, Danish scientist Steen Willadsen cloned a sheep from embryonic cells. This was the first confirmed case of mammalian cloning. Then again in 1986, Steen Willadsen, cloned a cow. [2]
After all these series of claims, on july 5, 1996, the first ever cloned sheep Dolly was created from adult cells by Ian Wilmut, Keith Campbell and colleagues at the Roslin Institute, part of the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and the biotechnology company PPL Therapeutics, based near Edinburgh. [3] The cloning of Dolly is one of the most important milestones in the history of animal cloning, as it proved that unlike previously discussed that cloning was more successful with early embryos than with mature cells wasn’t true and cloning of adult animals mature cells is possible. This was a kick start for the entire world to make an impossible dream of human cloning to reality. In 1997, two monkeys being the closest relatives to human species were cloned by nuclear transfer and in the same year President Clinton signed a five-year moratorium on the use of federal funds for human cloning.
Now, the scientist around the world being obsessed with cloning kept on founding more efficient ways than Ian Wilmut. In 2001, Scientists at Advanced Cell Technology, cloned a bull species of ox known as gaur and named it Noah. Noah was the first endangered animal to be cloned. Although Noah died of an infection unrelated to the cloning procedure, the experiment gave a new vision to the world of saving endangered species through cloning. Considering this, scientists are trying and putting efforts to save endangered species such as the giant panda, ocelot, and cheetah or even resurrect extinct ones. [4]
Now, think about human cloning it still come out to be fiction with no solid scientific evidence from anyone but only claims to clone human embryos have been found. In 1998, scientists in South Korea claimed to have successfully cloned a human embryo, but said the experiment was interrupted very early when the clone was just a group of four cells. In 2002, Clonaid, part of a religious group which provides reproductive human cloning services and believes humans were created by extraterrestrials like in the movie Prometheus where a team of humans set on a journey in search of the creators who are believed to be the one who genetically engineered human race and later found out that humans were created from there DNA, held a news conference to announce and claimed the birth of first cloned human, a girl named Eve. [6] However, despite repeated requests by the research community and the news media, Clonaid never provided any solid evidence to their claim which confirms the existence of Eve. [8] Another claim in 2004, a group led by Woo-Suk Hwang of Seoul National University in South Korea published a paper in the journal Science in which it claimed to have created a cloned human embryo in a test tube. However, an independent scientific committee later found no proof to support the claim and, in January 2006, it was announced that Hwang's paper had been withdrawn. [9] From a scientific point of view, cloning humans and other primates is more difficult than in other mammals and to understand it one should be acquainted to the subject of genetics and not what is shown in movies.
Now that we are familiar with the history of cloning, let’s get to the ethics of cloning and discuss whether we should support it or not. From what read above, it is observed that most of the time spent in developing technology for cloning was for plants and animals.
First let’s talk about plants and its cloning. One might be left scratching his head on the fact that most of us at a certain point in our life time have tried and even successfully achieved plant cloning. But the question is -How? The answer is tissue culture. Plant tissue culture is widely used to produce clones of a plant in a method known as micro propagation. The simplest way to clone a plant involves taking a cutting of a branch from the parent plant and then planting from cut area into the soil and with time roots develop at the planted end and a new plant is produced. This method is widely adopted by gardeners [10], plant sciences, forestry, and in horticulture. This includes:
- The commercial production of plants used as potting, landscape, and florist subjects, which uses meristem and shoot culture to produce large numbers of identical individuals. [11]
- To conserve rare or endangered plant species. [11]
- A plant breeder use tissue culture to screen cells and increase herbicide resistance & tolerance to plant diseases. [11]
- for production of valuable compounds, like proteins used as biopharmaceuticals. [11]
- To cross distantly related species by protoplast fusion and regeneration of the novel hybrid. [11]
- To study the reproductive mechanisms in plants. [11]
- To cross-pollinate distantly related species and performing Embryo Rescue. [11]
- Certain techniques such as meristem tip culture can be used to produce clean plant material from virused stock, such as potatoes and many species of soft fruit. [11]
- Production of identical sterile hybrid plant species can be obtained. [11]
All these applications of micro propagation (plant cloning) have benefited mankind especially in medicinal [12] & agricultural field. [13]
Now when it comes to ethics in plant cloning, almost all of us will support it and will even teach this method to kids and might someday even save mankind from the brink of extinction due to starvation. This concludes that plant cloning is acceptable and no one seems to object.
Now we come to animal cloning. Unlike plants, where only a parent plant cutting is required - animal cloning is a completely different process which begins at microscopic level. But as we have already read about how animal cloning is achieved, we shall now discuss ethics in animal cloning. From the year 1880’s humans have tried and achieved cloning with animals like frogs, sheep and ox and even perfected its methods. But even with such accomplishment it has faced criticism from people throughout the world. Many religious groups debated over their views related to sins committed by man as posing God and playing with nature. But no one sees the benefits with animal cloning. One of them is saving endangered species as discussed earlier scientists are trying their level best to save such animals. Even resurrecting extinct animal like the mammoth, scientists have claimed that they might be able to revive woolly mammoth [15] but also said it couldn’t be achieved soon as the technique requires scores of healthy mammoth cells and hundreds or thousands of eggs from a closely related species, such as the Asian elephant. Because there is a danger of elephants becoming extinct, it is clearly not appropriate to try to obtain 500 eggs from elephants. [15] Even then the risks involved are high and rate of success are low. [14]
Now apart from endangered and extinct species, there is an another aspect to animal cloning which recently caught the limelight is “In vitro meat” also called cultured meat, is an lab grown product produced from stem cells taken from a cow’s muscle tissue. These stem cells extracted are cultured in the laboratory with nutrients and growth-promoting chemicals to help them develop and multiply. Three weeks later, there are more than a million stem cells, which are put into smaller dishes where they coalesce into small strips of muscle about a centimeter long and a few millimeters thick. These strips are collected into small pellets, which are frozen. When there are enough, they are defrosted and compacted into a patty just before being cooked. [17]
On August 5, 2013, the world's first lab-grown burger was cooked and eaten at a news conference in London. [16]
Prof Tara Garnett, head of the Food Policy Research Network at Oxford University, said decision-makers needed to look beyond technological solutions.
"We have a situation where 1.4 billion people in the world are overweight and obese, and at the same time one billion people worldwide go to bed hungry," she said. [17]
An independent study suggest that lab-grown beef uses 45% less energy than the average global representative figure for farming cattle. It also produces 96% fewer greenhouse gas emissions and requires 99% less land which might address the issue of global climatic change. Researchers also said that the technology could prove to be a sustainable way of meeting the growing demand for meat. [17]
Currently, the work of In vitro meat is in progress. Researchers are facing challenge to develop such technology for growing meat as inexpensive and in abundance to meet market demand. [16] In addition to price and quantity, the meat grown is initially white in color and to make it more realistic researchers are trying to make it look red by adding the naturally-occurring compound myoglobin. [17]
An organizations known as PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) founded in 1980 which is dedicated to establishing and defending the rights of all animals, was offering a $1 million prize to the first contest participant able to make in vitro commercially viable chicken meat by March 4, 2014. [18] But unfortunately the contest ended with no winner having come forward to claim the prize. [19]
PETA maintains the contest was a “smashing success,” crediting substantial progress in research and development of in vitro meat. Commercially viable beef hamburgers or pork sausages, the group claims, are “bound to happen in the not-too-distant future.” [19]
In a statement, animal welfare campaigners People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) said: "[Lab-grown meat] will spell the end of lorries full of cows and chickens, abattoirs and factory farming. It will reduce carbon emissions, conserve water and make the food supply safer." [17]
Even after receiving such support, the question for its existence and consumption is still in debate and whether or not to support the technology. But in my opinion it is the most effective way to solve food shortage. Most institutes are even working in this area using similar methods to try to grow a human tissue for transplantation to replace worn-out or diseased muscle, nerve cells or cartilage. [17]
Finally, after discussing about plant and animal cloning now get down to human cloning.
Previously at the beginning we have already discussed what human cloning is and if achieved the created clone would be a baby and an adult. But there’s another arguments against human cloning which involves organ transplants. Some people think that clone first created will then killed to obtain organs for transplant whenever a part is needed. [1]
But this claim alone cannot be considered sufficient for discontinuing the cloning practices. As we all know illegal organ trafficking have been there in almost in every part of the world. This can clearly been seen when searched on any search engine like Google or Bing. But when you think about it, a human clone is just another human being. Like I said as discussed previously a clone is born in same way as any human do and you cannot force another human being to give you one of their internal organs or even kill to obtain. Doing so will be considered illegal.
As existing laws already prevent such abuses. In fact a clone will share the same human rights as that of its original.
Some of the most common ethical and moral arguments against human cloning seem to come from people with religious viewpoints. Many religious philosophies teach that human life is unique, and should be created, determined and controlled by the God alone. Some religious beliefs says that the existence of any individual is defined by the presence of soul. And the only person who can create a soul is God. [1]
For most of the people sharing a similar religious view, cloning to them is without a doubt a matter of someone trying to play God. But what about the people who don’t believe in God.
In the country like America people from different religion with different religious beliefs resides and is not possible to justify or compare ones beliefs with others. There are several practices that are not allowed in one religion, but doesn’t make them banned. For example, The Jewish and Muslim faiths do not permit the consumption of pork, but anyone can still go to the supermarket and buy bacon. [1] This clarifies that views of human cloning are influenced by religious beliefs. So banning this process because of some religious beliefs is unethical.
In 1997, immediately after the news about Dolly broke out, some nations banded against the activity of human cloning. Currently, this process is illegal in England and Norway, for example, but it is not totally illegal in the U.S. However, President Clinton announced a ban on using federal funds for human cloning research and to appeal for a voluntary moratorium on any private research involving this process. As President Clinton said, “Any discovery that touches upon human creation is not simply a matter of scientific inquiry. It is a matter of morality and spirituality as well”. [1]
Our history is full of examples where humans have resisted to any new discovery or invention which goes against their religion views. Like discovering of earth shape to be round than flat or sun being the center of our solar system rather than the earth. And now the same is considered for human cloning, but we should we need see it as another new helpful technology, should be embraced instead of feared.
One of the biggest reasons for keeping cloning legal is the way that this technology can help infertile couples. There are many couples in the world in which one or both of the individuals is unable to naturally give their genes for the purpose of reproduction. However, through cloning, these people would have a chance to give birth to a child that is genetically related to them. This way, the parents will be assured that their genes will be passed on to future generations. It was announced in late 1997, by (the appropriately named) Dr. Richard Seed that he would open a fertility clinic in either the United States or Mexico by 1999 to help infertile couples using human cloning technology. Thus, human cloning will hopefully prove itself useful as a tool for infertility. [1] Also, previously we already mentioned the existence of such organization called clonaid which is already providing such services to infertile couples.
Other very important medical benefits could be obtained through cloning technology is growing of spare parts to be used in organ transplants. Once the cloning of a cell has been done and the cell has started dividing, it does not necessarily have to grow into an entire person. Researchers understand that through a series of tasks, they can hold the cell to develop into specialized cells or even complete organs. For example, “A heart or a kidney could be grown outside of the body to be used in organ transplants without fear of rejection from the recipient’s body, eliminating the need for anti-rejection drugs”. Moreover, simpler tissues such as skin cells have already been cloned in laboratories for use in skin grafts for burn victims. Therefore, human cloning will also prove its usefulness in the production of organs in the future. [1]
Another possible medical advance that could be developed through cloning research is the ability to cure genetic diseases. According to the Human Cloning Foundation, this process can help people with genetic problems; those who have a high risk for Down’s syndrome can avoid that risk by cloning. The foundation also states that they might also be able to make livers for liver transplants, and kidneys for kidney transplants and even create bone marrow for children and adults who are suffering from leukemia, and we may learn how to switch cells on and off through cloning and thus be able to cure cancer. [1]
Also, before an artificially fertilized embryo is implanted a cell from the embryo, it could be cloned and analyzed for genes that cause diseases. This way an embryo with the highest chance of good health and survival could be selected for implantation.
In conclusion, people should be educated about cloning rather than being told that it is against God’s will. They should learn about this scientific process and then make their conclusion, not on what they read in novels or see in movies. Cloning is still a young technology and is under process to make it better and as we all know in the beginning there are always some difficulties while developing a new technology. Therefore, only research about its positive aspects will lead to its improvement and growth. To ban this research would result in the loss of a technology that could someday cure diseases, or prevent the deaths of people who wait endlessly for an organ for transplant. [1]
Works cited
Research paper on human cloning.
http://www.humancloning.org/esiann.htmHISTORY OF CLONING
http://bsp.med.harvard.edu/?q=node/18Dolly (sheep) (Wikipedia)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolly_(sheep)Cloning Endangered Species and Undermining Conservation (The American Anti-Vivisection Society (AAVS))
http://www.aavs.org/site/c.bkLTKfOSLhK6E/b.6470141/k.4A47/Cloning_Endangered_Species_and_Undermining_Conservation.htm#.U_XW4cWSyFAHuman cloning (News - Clonaid.com)
http://www.clonaid.com/Clonaid Claims First Cloned Human Baby (2002) (YouTube)
The Ethics of Cloning - March 1998 Issue of St. Anthony Messenger Magazine Online
http://www.americancatholic.org/Messenger/Mar1998/feature2.asp#qsEve: First Human Clone? (CBSNews)
http://www.cbsnews.com/news/eve-first-human-clone/Discredited Cloning Expert Is Convicted of Fraud in South Korea (The New York Times)
By: Sang-hun, Choe.
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/27/world/asia/27clone.html?_r=0Cloning (BBC News)
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_gateway/living_growing/cloningrev1.shtmlPlant tissue culture (Wikipedia)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_tissue_cultureResult Filters (National Center for Biotechnology Information)
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15139118Micro-Propagation: A Revolution in Agriculture http://theviewspaper.net/micro-propagation-a-revolution-in-agriculture/
What are the Risks of Cloning? http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cloning/cloningrisks/
Scientists move one step closer to resurrecting woolly mammoths
http://www.rawstory.com/rs/2013/07/30/scientists-move-one-step-closer-to-resurrecting-woolly-mammoths/In vitro meat (Wikipedia)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro_meat#Ethical_considerationsWorld's first lab-grown burger eaten (BBC News)
http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-23576143
PETA's 'In Vitro' Chicken Contest (PETA)
http://www.peta.org/features/vitro-meat-contest/PETA Ends $1 Million Contest for Lab-Grown Chicken (Reviewed.com Ovens)
http://ovens.reviewed.com/news/peta-ends-1-million-contest-to-develop-lab-grown-chicken-meat