The magnesium ion is absorbed mainly via a paracellular route in the small intestine and secondarily (up tp 30%) via a transcellular pathway in the distal ileus and colon.

The combined use of IV albumin, IV (or SQ) octreotide and oral midodrine (or another blood pressure-increasing medication) can be useful for the treatment of the hepatorenal syndrome (HRS).

Avacopan is a medication that is used for ANCA associated vasculitis. (One example of this is what was called Wegener's granulomatosis). It inhibits C5a-mediated neutrophil activation

Hyperglycemia can cause hyponatremia by causing an osmotic translocation of water from the intracellular space to the extracellular space. The hypoantremia usually corrects when hyperglycemia resolves.

Hyperuricemia may be associated with chronic uric acid nephropathy. This condition, however, has not been conclusively proven. There is evidence suggesting that reducing uric acid may lower the progress

Hyperphosphatemia is associated with increased mortality in patients undergoing hemodialysis. It is related to excess vascular calcification, which leads to worsening vascular disease.

Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) is a process in the kidney that damages the podocyte cells and leads to protein leaking. It can be primary (immune), secondary (hyperfiltration/infection) or genetic.

The Potential Renal Acid Load or PRAL is the amount of acid the diet produces in the body. It is measured in milliequivalents per acid per day.

IgA nephropathy or Berger's disease is the most common glomerulonephritis worldwide. Its incidence is 2.5/100,000 adults per year and it is considered in the list of rare diseases.

Anemia of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is the combined result of decreased intestinal iron absorption associated to CKD and the decreased production of erythropoietin by the affected kidneys.

A renal biopsy is an extremely important tool for the diagnosis of certain renal conditions that present with proteinuria and/or hematuria or when the diagnosis of the renal condition is unknown.

Hyponatremia (or low sodium concentration in the plasma) is a state of water intoxication. Measures should be implemented to achieve a negative total body balance.

Chronic urate nephropathy is caused by the deposit of uric acid crystals in the medullary interstitium of the kidney causing decreased GFR, interstitial fibrosis and tubular proteinuria.

Hypertension is one of the common causes for chronic renal failure. Over many years of elevated blood pressure, sclerosis and thickening of the arteriolar walls and glomerular walls occurs.

Lupus nephritis is the inflammation of the kidney tissue caused by the autoimmune condition known as lupus. It can be mild or severe enough for a patient to require dialysis.

In patients with advanced chronic kidney disease the correction of metabolic acidosis may slow down the progression towards the need of renal replacement therapy.

Patients with chronic kidney disease may develop econdary hyperparathyroidism as a consequence of the lack of activation of 25-OH vitamin D and/or elevated phosphorus levels.

The use of non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor blockers (like finerenone) can reduce the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in patients with diabetic nephropathy.

The use of sodium-glucose transporter (SGLT-2) inhibitors can reduce the progression of chornic kidney disease in diabetics and non-diabetics

Obstructive uropathy is one of the important causes of acute renal failure. This can be caused by an enlarged prostate gland, kidney stones, or strictures of the urinary tract.