Colonialism

A sense of powerlessness in the Philippines cannot be understood without the concept of colonialism. The term colonialism refers to “a scenario in which a state or group has power over another territory and its people.”29Simply put, colonialism means “the policy and practice of a power in extending control over weaker peoples or areas.”30Michael Rynkiewich explains, “The modern era of colonialism has involved the expansion of Europe and Japan through trade (state or private corporations), military conquest, forced eviction, resettlement, cultural imperialism, and economic exploitation of local populations, lands, and resources.”31The practice of colonialism typically encompasses “the development of political policies used to dominate or control a subjugated people and geographic area, the occupation of the territory with settlers, and the economic exploitation of the territory.”32

The Philippines was colonized by Spain (1521–1898) and the United States (1898–1946). Colonialism in the Philippines immensely affected Filipinos’ lives, cultures, worldviews, politics, economics, and religion. In the case of religion, Christian missions by Catholic missionaries during Spanish colonization and Protestant missionaries during American rule carried out their mission works under the influence of colonial power. For this reason, religious leaders, especially Catholic leaders, throughout Filipino history tend to be labeled as a privileged powerful elite group. Contemporary socio-political forms like clientelism, oligarchy, and elitism in the Philippines are originally attributed to colonialism. Especially, the land-based economic system throughout colonization ushered the appearance of “neo-patrimonialism” in the Philippines in the early 21st century. Moreover, the economic expansion of the United States to the Philippines resulted in re-colonialization of the Philippines economically and culturally. Preference for American cultural and material products, such as music, films, clothes, and food, gradually replaced the preference for local products. The American educational system and the use of English as the major language played a significant role in the continuing process of re-colonization.

Transformation

In this study, I use the term transformation to indicate one of the ultimate conditions by which everyday people overcome powerlessness. Simply put, whereas I define poverty as powerlessness, development is defined as empowerment. In addition, I suggest that empowerment of everyday people is possible through transformation. Vinay Samuel states, “Transformation is to enable God’s vision of society to be actualized in all relationships, social, economic and spiritual, so that God’s will may be reflected in human society and his love be experienced by all communities, especially the poor.”33Samuel clarifies the concept of transformation further: “Mission is individuals coming to Christ, challenging corrupt and sinful systems, structures and cultures and enabling individuals and communities to experience God’s transforming power.”34Transformation is here located by identifying Christian action against sin and God’s power as a transforming power.

The Protestant Church

The Protestant Church traditionally represents one of the three great divisions of Christianity: the other two are the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Historically, Protestantism began during the Renaissance as a protest against the Roman Catholic Church. In the Protestant Church, its major distinctive divisions are the Mainline Church, the Evangelical church, and the Pentecostals. In this study, however, I do not distinguish between these different terms. Rather, given that the Roman Catholic Church dominates the religious context of the Philippines, I will intentionally use the Protestant Church to indicate these three different forms of Christianity, which do not fall into the category of the Catholic Church. In other words, the word the Protestant Church will be used to contrast with Catholic Church.

Research Methodology

In order to explore the answers to the research questions, I used an integrative literature and ethnographic interview methodology. My literature research prepared the theoretical foundations on the major themes of this study, and then I engaged in the conversation between the literature and the data collected from my ethnographic interviews, in such integrative ways to analyze, test, and evaluate.

Ethnographic Interview

My ethnographic subjects were Filipino American Protestants in Texas because this study sought to empower them to be agents of transformation in the Philippines. I used ethnography as the primary means of collecting data in the churches. Julian Murchison describes ethnography as follows:

Ethnography is a research strategy that allows researchers to explore and examine the cultures and societies that are a fundamental part of the human experience. Unlike many other scientific strategies, the ethnographer as researcher is not typically a detached or uninvolved observer. The ethnographer collects data and gains insights through firsthand involvement with research subjects or informants. With few exceptions, the ethnographer conducts research by interacting with other human beings that are part of the study; this interaction takes many forms, from conversations and interviews to shared ritual and emotional experiences.

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