Due to the constant rains and chilly weather, I woke feeling feverish. I tried to keep it to myself alone for fear of being forcefully administered herbal concoction as is the norm of my mother. She seem to have all the remedy for every ailment planted in our garden around the house.
It became cloudy and temperature dropped. Unable to pretend anymore I began to shiver.
Wetin dey do you?
I heard mummy's inquiring voice.
Nothing, na just cold dey worry me
Typical of her, she reached and touched me. My temperature had sky rocketed and my body was blazingly hot surprisingly I was cold in my insides.
Immediately she called in my cousin to go cut "Ewe lapalapa", that was the name she called herb. It sounded scary to me and I stamped my foot that I wasn't taking anything of such.
Silly me.
The short story of it was I finally took it amidst threats of eye contact. (African mothers have this specialty of communication with the eyes. When a child is misbehaving in yue presence of visitors all the mother need do is give him that eye contact and like magic there'll be quiet).
I actually got better without taking any other drug except the herbs and so I became curious. I'm no medical practitioner but I have a kid brother who accidentally was looking for a topic to research on.
Let us research on Ewe lapalapa
I casually blurted out to him. He looked at me like i was crazy and I gave up, I didn't even know what its English name was or scientific I just knew mummy called it Ewe lapalapa.
Well somehow, kid brother got interested and he came back to me and he said we seem to be living on medical crude oil. After explaining all the medical jargons many of which incoukd not pronoune he announced he was doing a review on Ewe lapalapa.
Enjoy.
Highlights
• Jatropha curcas, a plant/herb with potential for biodiesel production and medicinal use(s).
• A plant/herb that has been used traditionally worldwide for treatments of different ailments.
• Many pharmacological studies has supported its uses for inflammation and wound healing.
Abstract
Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) has been found to be a multi purpose plant with the potential for biodiesel production and medicinal use. Already put into good used for the treatment of a wide spectrum of ailments related to skin, cancer, digestive, respiratory and infectious diseases. This review aims to provide an insight survey of informations available on botany, traditional uses, toxicity, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of J. curcas. Establishing a scientific basis that explains its ethnopharmacological uses in order to facilitate and make guide for future research available.
Ethnomedicinal uses of Jatropha curcas have been reported from many countries in Asia, Africa, the Middle East and South America for treatments of almost 100 different types of ailments. It's phytochemical studies have shown the presence of many secondary metabolites like diterpeniods, sesquiterpenoids, alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, lignans, coumarins and cyclic peptides. Also, crude extracts and isolated compounds from Jatrophe curcas has shown a wide range of pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, anticancer, antidiabetic, anticoagulant, hepatoprotective, analgesic and abortifacient effects.
Jatrophe curcas has been a widely used source of medicine for decades to many people and cultures. This review reveals that J. curcas is a valuable source of medical important molecules which provides convincing support for its future use in modern day medicine.
Keywords
Toxidity, Anti-inflammatory, Antioxidant, Anti cancer Antimicrobial, Anticoagulant.
1. Introduction
Jatropha curcas, has become a multiple purpose plant with the potentials of biodiesel productions and also medicinal uses. Recent increased interest in its seed oil for biodiesel production has encouraged the cultivation of the plant on a large scale. Quite a number of reviews have been written on the genus Jatropha which covers various aspects like, medicinal properties, phytochemistry and pharmacology (Sabandar et al., 2012, Sharma and Singh, 2012), diterpenes (Devappa et al., 2011), nutritional, biochemical, and pharmaceutical potential of proteins and peptides (Devappa et al., 2010b), toxicity (Devappa et al., 2010a) and chemical constituents (Zhang et al., 2009).
Though there are new reviews published recently on medicinal benefits and applications from Jatropha curcas species (Prasad et al., 2012, Sharma et al., 2012, Luis et al., 2012, Kamal et al., 2011, Thomas et al., 2008), still there is crucial need for an inclusive review that covers the therapeutic and toxicological potential of this species.
This review a collation of the available information on the botanical, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity of J. curcas. Hoping that this review provides scientific basis that explains the ethnopharmacological use of Jatropha curcas in order to facilitate and guide future research. This review intends to answer the following questions.
• What information is available on traditional uses, botanical, phytochemistry and toxicity of Jatropha curcas?
• The pharmacological studies performed on this plant and how they validate its traditional uses?
• What is the future for Jatropha curcas?
1.1. Taxonomy and botanical description
Jatropha belongs to the Jatropheae tribe in the Euphorbiaceae family which contains approximately 170 known species (Carels, 2009, Dehgan and Webster, 1979). It's botanical name Jatropha was derived from the Greek word “Jatros” meaning a doctor and “trophe” meaning food (Kumar and Sharma, 2008) which incorporates the historical medicinal uses of this plant. Jatropha curcas L. Found to be a diploid species with 2n = 22 chromosomes (Carels, 2009).
In Mexico, there are two genotypes classified as toxic and non-toxic (Becker and Makkar, 2008). Having a life span of up to 50 years (Achten et al., 2010), it is a deciduous plant with an articulated growth habit with morphological discontinuity (Becker and Makkar, 2008). A root system constituting a main taproot and four shallow lateral roots (Carels, 2009, Heller, 1996, Neuwinger, 1996). It's branches are glabrous with smooth greenish-bronze-coloured bark and translucent latex (Neuwinger, 1996). The leaves are smooth, 5-lobed and heart-shaped, 10–15 cm long, dark green and some times deep red, cordate or round, acute at the apex, cordate at the base, alternate and may fall once in a year (Dehgan and Webster, 1979, Neuwinger, 1996). With flowers in axillary clusters, a stalk of 3–5 cm long, bracts entire, lanceolate or linear, densely pubescent, yellowish-green, and prominent glandular discs in the flowers. The Male flowers with 5 ovate-elliptic sepals, less than 4 mm long and 5-oblong-obovate petals united in the lower half, densely hairy inside, 6–7 mm long, 8 stamens. It's Female flowers with free oblong petals, larger sepals, 4 mm long (Abdelgadir et al., 2009, Bhattacharya et al., 2005, Chang-Wei et al., 2007, Raju and Ezradanam, 2002). Fruits are ovoid capsules 3–4 cm long, slightly trilobite, splitting into three cells. It has a three per fruit seeding system, large, oblong, 2 cm long and sweet tasting (Kochhar et al., 2008, Neuwinger, 1996).
1.2. Habitat, distribution and ecology
The main origin of Jatropha curcas is in the Northeastern part of South America and the dry areas of Mexico (Jongschaap et al., 2007, Makkar et al., 2009). It was said that the plant was distributed by Portuguese ships through the Cape Verde Islands and Guinea Bissau to other countries in Africa and Asia (Heller, 1996). Currently cultivated abundantly in many tropical and sub-tropical regions in Africa and Asia (Schmook and Serralta-Peraza, 1997) as ornamental trees (Iwu, 1993) or as sturdy hedges (Neuwinger, 1996). Jatropha curcas thrives under conditions where the temperature ranges between 15 and 40 °C (Kumar and Sharma, 2008). The plant not sensitive to day length, may flower at any time of the year (Heller, 1996). It grows better under a wide range of rainfall from 250 to over 1200 mm yearly. During low rainfall or prolonged dry season the plant sheds its leaves as a counter to drought. It grows well in well drained soils with good aeration also well adapted to marginal soils with low nutrient content (Openshaw, 2000).
1.3. General uses
Jatropha curcas's seed kernels contain 31–35% crude protein and 55–58% lipid (Martínez-Herrera et al., 2006). The oil composes of 97.6% neutral lipids, 1.45% phospholipids and 0.95% glycolipids (Rao et al., 2009). It has unsaturated fatty acids dominating the saturated fatty acids in a ratio of 3:1 (Joshi et al., 2011). The dominant fatty acids found in Jatropha curcas oil are oleic (41.5–48.8%), linoleic (34.6–44.4%), palmitic (10.5–13%), stearic (2.3–2.8%) in addition to cis-11-eicosenoic and cis-11, 14 eicosadienoic acids (Martínez-Herrera et al., 2006). The oil from the seed contains properties that have been sufficiently persuasive to consider it as a substitute for fossil fuels to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Abdelgadir et al., 2010). This oil can be used in manufacturing of soaps, candles and cosmetics. Its seed cake (or kernel meal) provides nutritious and economic protein supplement for animal feed if detoxified (Makkar et al., 1998). Also recently, Visser et al. (2011) reported a possibility of producing cellulosic methanol from the by-products of Jatropha curcas's oil extraction. The plant is also used to prevent soil erosion, reclaim land and as a living fence (Heller, 1996).
2. Vernacular names and traditional uses
2.1. Vernacular Names
Jatropha curcas L. is commonly known as: Barbados nut, purging but tree termite plant, fig nut, bubble bush, black vomit nut, curcas bean, kukui haole, physic nut, purgeerboontjie, hab el-meluk, ratanjot (Iwu, 1993, Ram et al., 2008).
It is known by various vernacular names in Africa as: kidi, tabanani, bagani in Senegal, Guniea, Sierra Leone Gambia and Ivory Coast; kpoti in Ghana and Togo; habb el meluk in Sudan; mupfure-donga, mupfure-wa-tshikhuwa, purgeerboontjie in South Africa (Neuwinger, 1996); and botute or omangba in Nigeria (Gbolade, 2009, Igoli et al., 2005).
2.2. Hunting Poison
The bark or latex is a fishing poison in some parts of Africa and the Philippines. In Nigeria, a mixture of Jatropha curcas seeds and the latex of Euphorbia poisnii or E. unispina mixed with corn is used as bait in hunting guinea-fowl. Some African tribes make arrow poison from the seed or seed oil of Jatropha curcas and Strophanthus spp. in Nigeria and Burkina Faso, seeds grated/mashed with palm oil are used to kill rats (Neuwinger, 1996).
These listed traditional uses for hunting poison are related to the high toxicity of the seed and latex of Jatropha curcas.
2.3. Uses In Traditional Veterinary Practices And Medicine
Almost all parts of Jatropha curcas have been used for veterinary purposes. It's seeds highly effective against Strongyloides papillosus infection in goats (Adam and Magzoub, 1975).
The dried plant sap rubbed into a powdered form between the hands and applied to wounds is regarded as “penicillin” in The Congo. In Nigeria, Senegal, Congo and East Africa, its leaf, stem sap or dried powdered plant is spread on flesh wounds as a haemostatic. In Ivory Coast the grilled leaves are crushed together with saliva and the paste is applied to abscesses and wounds. Few droplets of diluted water solution of twig sap are given by mouth to new-born babies affected with tetanus. The seeds has been used to treat ascites, gout, paralysis, skin diseases also as a purgative, anthelminthic and abortifacient. In some parts of Africa seeds are chewed as laxative (Wole and Ayanbode, 2009). The seed oil also has been used as an ingredient in the treatment of rheumatism (Heller, 1996, Iwu, 1993).
3. Phytochemical Analysis
Jatropha species have been found to be rich sources of phytochemicals such as terpenes, cyclic peptides alkaloids and lignans (Devappa et al., 2010a).
3.1. Diterpenes
Diterpenes have always been dominating the research area of Jatropha curcas for their novel chemical structures and medical values. Diterpenes have a large range of 𝔦𝔫 𝔳𝔦𝔱𝔯𝔬 biological activities such as anticancer, antihypertensive, antiretroviral, anti-inflammatory, insecticidal analgesic, antimicrobial, and molluscicidal activities (Devappa et al., 2011). Based on the skeletal structure of the diterpenes isolated from Jatropha curcas, it was found to fall into six groups namely:
• Phorbol esters
• Rhamnofolane
• Lathyrane
• Pimarane
• Dinorditerpenes
• Deoxypreussomerins.
3.1.1. Phorbol esters
Phorbol esters are diterpenes believed to be the most toxic molecules in Jatropha species with a tigliane skeletal structure. Phorbol esters causes skin irritation and promotes tumor by stimulating protein kinase C (PKC). Which suggests a variety of biological activities over a range of organisms such as PKC is involved in signal transduction and developmental processes of most tissues and cells. Phorbol esters also promote tumor growths during exposure to subcarcinogenic doses of carcinogens (Goel et al., 2007). Among the phorbol esters Hirota et al. (1988) isolated from Jatropha curcas was 12-Deoxy-l 6-hydroxyphorbol which has a macrocyclic dicarboxylic acid diester structure. Zhang et al. (2009) reported the identification of a compound later named riolozatrione, whereas Naengchomnong et al. (1994) isolated jatrophol (C20H24O3). Hass et al. (2002) successfully isolated six phorbol ester compounds from Jatropha curcas seed oil characterized as Jatropha factors C1–C6 with a molecular formula C44H54O8Na. Also, Pertino et al. (2007) isolated some more phorbol esters from Jatropha curcas which was named jatropholones A and B, and then recently, Chianese et al. (2011) isolated acetoxyjatropholone from the root bark of Jatropha curcas.
3.1.2. Dinorditerpenes Deoxypreussomerins and pimarane
Naengchomnong et al. (1986a) successfully isolated dinorditerpene compounds named curcusones (C20H24O2) from the roots of Jatropha curcas. Together they identified four compounds known as curcusone A, curcusone B (C20H24O2), curcusone C (C20H24O3) and curcusone D. It was recently, when Chianese et al. (2011) isolated curcusone E and spirocurcasone from root bark of Jatropha curcas. Zhang et al. (2009) reported the isolation of 16-hydroxyphorbol and, Hass et al. (2002) found another compound with the same diterpene skeleton which he named as 12-deoxy-16-hydroxyphorbol.
**3.1.3. Lathyrane and
rhamnofolane**
Naengchomnong et al. (1986b) further isolated two lathyrane compounds named curculathyranes A and B. The lathyrane diterpene jatrogrossidione (C20H26O3) was isolated from the roots of Jatropha grossidentata by Schmeda-Hirschmann et al. (1992). Four jatrogrossidione derivatives from the dried parts of Jatropha curcas were isolated by Ravindranath et al. (2004b) known as:
• 15-O-acetyl-15-epi-(4E)-jatrogrossidentadione (C22H30O5).
• (14E)-14-O-acetyl-5,6-epijatrogrossidentadione (C22H30O4).
• 3β-acetoxy-12-methoxy-13-methyl-podcarpa-8,11,13-trien-7one (C21H28O4).
• 3β,12-dihydroxy-13-methylpodoacrpane-8,10,13-triene (C18H26O2).
Rhamnofolane diterpene named caniojane (C20H24O5) was isolated from Jatropha curcas roots (Sutthivaiyakit et al., 2009). Quite recently, Liu et al. (2012) isolated successfully three compounds from the roots of Jatropha curcas namely; jatrophalactone, jatrophalone and jatrophadiketone
3.2. Sesquiterpenoids and triterpenes
Quite a number of sesquiterpenoids and triterpene compounds were isolated from Jatropha curcas such as taraxasterol, β-amyrin and β-sitosterol (Mitra et al., 1970), (Z)-3-O-coumaroyloleanolic (Goulart et al., 1993), stigmasterol and daucasterol (Ling-yi et al., 1996) and friedelin (Ravindranath et al., 2004b) in that order.
3.3. Alkaloids
Alkaloids known to be a large group of nitrogen-containing compounds with important medical uses. They are known as compounds with powerful narcotic analgesic,antineoplastic antimalarial, antibacterial, anticancer and many other pharmacological purposes. Two alkaloids were isolated from Jatropha curcas leaves by Staubmann et al. (1999a) pyrrolidine (5-hydroxypyrrolidin-2-one) and pyrimidine-2,4-dione (uracil). Das et al. (2005) were able to isolated imidazole (4-Butyl-2-chloro-5-formyl-1H-imidazole). Most recently, Yao et al. (2012) isolated the compound diamide (curcamide) from the seed cake or kernel meal of Jatropha curcas.
3.4. Flavonoids.
Flavonoids, secondary metabolites with many pharmacological activities such as anticancer, antiviral, antitoxic, and hepatoprotective activities. Two flavonoids were successfully isolated from Jatropha curcas by Khafagy et al. (1977) named flavonoid glycoside I and flavonoid glycoside II.
3.5. Phenolics.
Present in all plants, phenolic compounds are considered to be biologically active constituents. These compounds are known to have antithrombotic and anti-inflammatory actions because they inhibit or antagonize the platelet activating factor (PAF) which is a potent inflammatory phospholipid mediator (Fragopoulou et al., 2007). A number of phenolic compounds were isolated from different parts of Jatropha curcas such as;
• 3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde
• 3-methoxy-4-hydroxybenzoate acid from the root (Ling-yi et al., 1996)
• Caffeoylaldehyde and syringaldehyde from the seed cakeor kernel meal (Yao et al., 2012).
3.6. Lignans, neolignans, coumarins, coumarino-lignoids and phytosterols
Coumarins are known as secondary metabolites that occur in seed coats, fruits, flowers, roots, leaves, and even stems. Coumarins are used to treat various skin disorders like eczema, psoriasis through combination of oral ingestion and UV-A treatment.
Four compounds of Coumarins were identified from Jatropha curcas as;
• Tomentin
• 5-hydroxy-6,7-dimethoxycoumarin, • 6-methoxy-7-hydroxycoumarin and
• 2,3,7-trimethoxy-8-O-β-d-glucoside ellagic acid (Zhang et al., 2009).
3.7. Proteins
Jatropha curcas proteins and peptides have been studied for the roles they play in plant metabolic activities, defense against predators and biological activities. Proteins such as aquaporins were isolated from different parts of Jatropha curcas. These proteins play important roles in plant's adaptation to drought stress by controlling the transmembrane water movement. In Jatropha curcas, aquaporins play an important role in the rapid growth by the plant during dry weather conditions (Devappa et al., 2010b).
Other functional proteins isolated from the plant are;
• Curcin, a lectin Stripe et al. (1976).
• Two esterases (JEA and JEB) and a lipase (JL) (Staubmann et al., 1999b).
• Curcain, a protease from the latex of Jatropha curcas (Nath and Duta, 1997).
• Phytate and a trypsine inhibitor (Makkar and Becker, 1997).
Van den Berg et al. (1995) successfully isolated the cyclic peptide curcacyclin A, whereas, Auvin et al. (1997) isolated curcacyclin B.
4. Pharmacological information
4.1. Anti-inflammatory effects
The extracts from Jatropha curcas for antiinflammatory activities from fractions of ethyl acetate from the plant's leaves was reported earlier by Staubmann et al. (1999c).
4.2. Antioxidant
The antioxidant extracts from Jatropha curcas are
• The aqueous
• Ethanol and
• Methanol apart from extracts like methanolic extract fractions from nodes, leaves, stems and roots of Jatropha curcas exhibited antioxidant activity (El Diwani et al., 2009, Igbinosa et al., 2011, Oskoueian et al., 2011b).
4.3. Antimicrobial activity
Antimicrobial activity of alcoholic extracts from Jatropha curcas leaves was reported by Akinpelu et al. (2009) and Irene and Cariňo (2011) for methanol extracts.
Antimicrobial activity of Jatropha curcas stem bark was reported in a number of papers. Igbinosa et al. (2009) reported antimicrobial activity of crude ethanolic, methanolic and water extracts of the stem bark.
Gupta et al. (2010) found antimicrobial activity of crude petroleum ether, ethyl acetate and also methanol extracts beside two other purified compounds JC-1 and JC-2 isolated from the stem bark of Jatropha curcas. Quite recently, Obasi et al. (2011) reported antimicrobial activity of the methanolic extract in addition to the methanolic extract fractions (Chloroform, ethyl acetate and methanol) from the stem bark of Jatropha curcas.
Jatropha curcas root extracts showed decent antimicrobial activities against a range of micro organisms especially those responsible for sexually transmitted diseases.
4.4. Anticancer activity
A Mexican survey on plant species from the Mexican flora revealed that Jatropha curcas is one of the species that is used for cancer treatments in Mexico (Alonso-Castro et al., 2011). Diterpenes are the major secondary metabolites synthesized by Jatropha curcas. These compounds are proven to be cytotoxic and also are tumor-inhibitors (Devappa et al., 2011). The methanolic extract fraction from Jatropha curcas leaves shows antimetastatic activity (Balaji et al., 2009a). Extracts from leaf, root and the stem bark of Jatropha curcas showed cytotoxic activity on an HT-29 cell line. The root extract was more active compared to its leaf and stem bark suggesting its candidacy as a source of an anticancer therapeutic agent (Oskoueian et al., 2011b).
4.5. Antiviral activity
This versatile plant has been observed to be able to combat certain viruses. Muanza et al. (1995) reported a moderate amount of cycloprotective activity against HIV in cultured human lymphoblastoid CEM-SS cells for methanol extracts from Jatropha curcas. Matsuse et al. (1999) went ahead to investigate the effects of aqueous and methanolic extracts from the branches of Jatropha curcas for the inhibition of HIV-induced cytopathic effects in cultured cells, HIV-reverse transcriptase and HIV-protease enzymes. The water extract of Jatropha curcas branches showed inhibition (IC50 24 μg ml−1) of the HIV-induced cytopathic effects with very low cytotoxicity (CC50 > 1000) and selectivity index CC50/IC50 (> 41.7). Recently, Wender et al. (2008) reported the possibility of a synthesized prostratin and DPP from phorbol esters gotten from J. curcas. This synthesis further facilitates the identification of a superior clinical candidates that could be used in the treatment of HIV.
4.6. Antidiabetic activity
Traditional leaf infusion, decoctions of boiled leaves or fruit burnt into ashes (Gbolade, 2009), water extract of the stem bark (Jayakumar et al., 2010) are used to control blood sugar levels.
However, there are scarce scientific information available regarding human models and research is needed to cover this aspect in the near future. Mishra et al. (2010) reported antihyperglycemic effects of about 50% ethanolic extract from Jatropha curcas leaves by oral administration in allaxon-induced diabetic rats. The extract at doses of 250 and 500 mg ml−1 bw respectively, which showed potent antihyperglycemic activity LD50 2500 mg kg−1. The reduction in glucose level in treated rats was 219.5–116.5 and 237–98.8 for doses of 250 and 500 mg kg−1, respectively. The results were quite comparable to the reduction in rats treated with the standard glibenclamide 232–94.5 at 600 μg kg−1. To add to that, the extract significantly reduced the cholesterol and triglyceride levels in the rats.
4.7. Analgesic activity
Two Nigerians Uche and Aprioku (2008) reported analgesic activity of methanolic extract from Jatropha curcas leaves in mice using acetic acid-induced writhing test. This methanolic extract caused significant reductions in the number of acetic acid-induced writhing in mice compared to the analgesic effect obtained from the reference drug paracetamol.
In another study Yusuf and Maxwell (2010) studied the analgesic activity in vivo of methanolic leaf extracts from Jatropha curcas using hot plate and acetic acid-induced writhing reflex in mice and immersion method in rats. In the hot plate and tail flick models, there was oral administration of the leaf extract at doses of 100, 200 and 400 mg kg−1 and the reference drug acetylsalicylic 400 mg kg−1 showed an analgesic effect by increasing the pain time dose dependant in mice and rats.
4.8. Hepatoprotective activity
Balaji et al. (2009b) evaluated the methanolic fractions from the plant's leaves against hepatocellular carcinoma, induced by aflatoxin B1 via oral administration in rats at doses of 100 and 200 mg kg−1. The methanolic fractions decreased the levels of elevated serum enzymes, lipid levels and bilirubin and then it increased the protein and uric acid levels.
The rat's liver histopathology showed that the methanolic fractions reduced incidence of liver lesions, lymphocytic infiltrations and hepatic necrosis induced by aflatoxins.
4.9. Anticoagulant and procoagulant activity
Traditionally, the leaf, thestem sap or the dried powdered plant of Jatropha curcas is spread on flesh wounds as haemostatic (Neuwinger, 1996, Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Osoniyi and Onajobi (2003) reported that the plant possess both procoagulant and anticoagulant activities as the latex significantly reduced the clotting time of the human blood.
However, diluted latex prolonged the clotting time. They attributed the opposing activities to the solvent partitioning of the latex with acetyl acetate and butanol. At low concentration, the acetyl acetate fraction would show procoagulant activity, while the butanol fraction had the highest anticoagulant activity.
4.11. Antifertility activity (abortifacient activity)
Goonasekera et al. (1995) reported antifertility activity after administring oral methanol, petroleum ether and dichloromethane extracts from Jatropha curcas fruits to pregnant rats. The fruit extracts caused foetal resorption which interrupted pregnancy occurrence at an early stage after implantation.
Makonnen et al. (1997) reported anti-implantation and antifertility effects of crude seed extract of Jatropha curcas after oral administration to female albino pigs.
5. Toxicity
5.1. Toxic and antinutritional components
Majorly the toxic and antinutritional components from Jatropha curcas and their molecular mechanisms are Phorbol esters and curcin to be the most toxic phytochemicals of Jatropha curcas (Devappa et al., 2010a). Its seeds contain major toxic components such as the phorbol esters, the antinutritional phytate and the trypsin inhibitor factors.
In the study by Devappa et al. (2012b) the Jatropha curcas kernels were separated into cotyledons, hypocotyls, kernel coat and endosperm to determine the location of the antinutrients. The results showed that majority of phytate (96.5%), trypsin inhibitor (95.3%) and phorbol esters (85.7%) were localised in the endosperm.
5.2. Toxicological effects in the in vitro and in vivo models
Jatropha curcas exhibited toxicity to a very wide variety of species in microorganisms, animals including humans. All the parts of Jatropha curcas are toxic and the degree of toxicity varies with the extraction types, the nature of test substances, dose, mode of administration, and also sensitivity of the animals (Devappa et al., 2010a). The seeds are found to be toxic to humans (Heller, 1996, Gandhi et al., 1995) with symptoms of giddiness, diarrhoea, vomiting, delirium, muscle shock, decrease vision, and high pulse rate (Becker and Makkar, 1998, Rai and Lakhanpal, 2008, Singh et al., 2010).
In animals toxic symptoms were reported when raw seeds were force-fed to chicks (El-Badawi et al., 1995, Makkar et al., 2009), pigs (Chivandi et al., 2000, Chivandi et al., 2006), sheep and goats (Adam and Magzoub, 1975, Ahmed and Adam, 1979), rabbits (Gandhi et al., 1995), mice and rats (Liberalino et al., 1988, Abdel Gadir et al., 2003, Adam, 1974), carp Cyprinus carpio (Becker and Makkar, 1998).
In rabbits, Gandhi et al. (1995) observed the symptoms of diarrhoea, haemorrhagic eyes and inflammation of the g-intestinal tract at 6, 9 and 13.5 ml kg−1 BW.
6. Conclusions
Jatropha curcas is a multi purpose plant with potential for biodiesel production and medical useage. It has a long history of usage in treatments of a quite a wide range of ailments in many different countries.
This present review only attempts to provide information already available on botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity of Jatropha curcas
with literature covering available from 1960 to 2012. The review has shown the diverse traditional uses of Jatropha curcas and how it differs from one country to another.
However, the treatments of gastric problems, inflammatory disorders, sexual diseases, jaundice, diabetes, dysentery, fever, and skin diseases are most common especially in African countries. The reports submitted on the use of Jatropha curcas for same ailments in different continents clearly indicates its strong potential for biological activities.
The pharmacological studies on the extracts and metabolites from this plant have mostly been performed in vitro and in vivo using animals. These studies have revealed various pharmacological activities such as antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective and anticoagulant.
Relatively to the constituents contributing to medicinal values, the findings indicated that diterpenes are mainly responsible for the anti-inflammatory, cytotoxicity and antimicrobial activities. And Phenolics, saponins and flavonoids are responsible for antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Also Sesquiterpenoids are responsible for antimicrobial, analgesic effects and proteins such as curcain are responsible for wound healing. And finally, Lignans and steroids are responsible for the cytotoxicity and antidiabetic activities, respectively.
The very detailed pharmacological studies presented in this review helps provide pragmatic documentation for Jatropha curcas traditional uses, and reveals that this plant may be considered as potential source for medicinal molecules.
Acknowledgements
The University of Ibadan for for availability of its library.
Dr. Olawale Jimoh for his critical review and valuable advice.
Alhaji Tairu Jimoh for financial support.
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